Prolapsed Disc And Got Pregnant

The name of the goods and waste

Benito Leoci bleoci@yahoo.it



Abstract The need to distinguish not only with a name with a code or serial number, products, goods, and even people is very old, being connected to the need clearly identify, quickly and without the possibility errors, the same objects or people. Increased demand in recent times with the proliferation of compounds and goods of all kinds. The assignment of a code for a molecule to a weapon or a portable volume solves different problems. In the first case you want to go back to the formula and the chemical and physical properties of the compound, the second is to identify the owner of the weapon, in the third case you want to help you find the volume1 in a library or you want to meet other needs (for complete catalogs, for accounting, etc...) The last area hit by a coding system is that of waste, as we shall see.
Meanwhile, however, in some areas stato relativamente semplice contraddistinguere con un nome o un numero l’oggetto da identificare (si pensi ai mezzi di trasporto, alle abitazioni, ai libri, ecc.), in altri settori l’impresa si è rilevata più difficile del previsto. Si pensi ai composti chimici e ai prodotti derivati e, in particolare, ai rifiuti. Esaminiamo più da vicino alcuni di questi settori e i relativi sistemi di codificazione.

Composti e prodotti chimici

Il bisogno di individuare con precisione le caratteristiche chimico-fisiche degli elementi e dei loro composti con l’uso di simboli e nomi, nasce nel corso del 17° secolo (2), quando l’alchimia si trasforma in chimica. Come si possono denominare i tentativi JV Dobereiner, JAR Newlands, JL Meyer, and those more fortunate, Mendeleev (3), to sort and classify the chemical elements, if not as a necessity to give a name and number to each item so you can inferred without error, all property related? About
chemical compounds, the work to find a convenient way to give them a unique name and clear, was longer and started practically in 1919 with the birth of the IUPAC (4). Previously, however, in 1911, had met in Paris the International Association of Chemical Societies (IACS), in order to establish, among other things, the nomenclature of organic and inorganic chemicals, the standard of atomic weights and physical constants, and other characteristics. The first attempt at international level, to devise a system for naming organic chemicals, however, is attributed to Kekule, who in 1860 organized the first of a series of meetings, from which came later the Geneva Conference (Geneva Nomenclature), 1892 .
At the same time, with increasing number of chemical compounds that are synthesized or identified (if they exist in nature), is becoming increasingly clear the need for recourse to a system and should be easy to call them, classify and describe them. The problem is evidently also the authors of the Chemisches Zentralblatt, the Berichte of Chemical Abstracts and other children, who were also offered the task of gathering, applied in volumes, to be published periodically, summaries of articles concerning the chemical in some way, that appeared in scientific journals species in Europe and U.S.. The
Chemisches Zentralblatt born 1830 in Leipzig, at the initiative of a certain Leopold Voss, editor, and Gustav T. Fechner, philosopher, physicist, under the name "Pharmaceutisches Centralblatt. The idea is to publish summaries of articles concerning pharmaceutical products, which appeared on German and foreign magazines. 1864, the editors introduce a comprehensive index that can be considered as the first system of classification of compounds. Il 1884, con l’introduzione delle formule di struttura dei composti considerati, si ha un’altra svolta nella storia di queste pubblicazioni. Il Chemisches Zentralblatt conosce il massimo successo nel periodo1897-1938, per poi subire un lento declino a partire dagli anni del II conflitto mondiale, seguito dalla divisione della Germania nelle due repubbliche. Il 31 dicembre del 1969 cessano le pubblicazioni con l’uscita dalla produzione della “Akademie Verlag” della Repubblica Democratica che negli anni precedenti, con alterne vicende, aveva collaborato attivamente con la “Verlag Chemie” della Repubblica Federale (poi riuniti dal 1949 nella Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker). La Verlag Chemie confluisce nella American Chemical Society (ACS) to assist with the publication of Chemical Abstracts. In 140 years the public Chemisches Zentralblatt5 140 volumes consisting of 700 000 pages, containing 3 million 200 thousand pages of summaries and indexes. Each compound is described by its name (or the various names), with its formula, with the summary of the main property and indexed with an identification code. As for the
Berichte, The first volume appeared in 1868 under the title "Berichte der deutschen chemischen Geselschaft. In 1919, under number 52, the volumes are divided into two series (A: Vereins-Nachrichten and B: Abhandlungen), to assume, from 1947 (after a year break due to problems of post war) until 1996, the name of "Chemische Berichte". The latter, 1997 is absorbed by the "Recueil des Travaux Chimiques Dutch Journal des Pays-Bas," to form the "Chemische Berichte / Recueil" and "Liebigs Annalen / Recueil. The following year, both are merged with other European magazines, respectively, to form the 'European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry' and the 'European Journal of Organic Chemistry. " In the same century
19 other magazines are born with the same purpose: in France, "Bulletin de la Société Chimique de France" (1863), GB in the Journal of the Chemical Society (1671). In the U.S., by Arthur A. Noyes6, part of the "Review of American Chemical Research" (1895), which after two years becomes a supplement of the Journal of the American Chemical Society (JACS). The JACS 1902 became editor of the William A. Noyes, a cousin of Arthur, who was convinced of the opportunity to publish a magazine containing summaries of articles on topics of chemistry, published in other journals. Within four years convinced of the goodness of his idea, publishers and ACS begin the publication of "Chemical Abstracts (CA). The relentless development of CA in the following years until the complete domination of the sector worldwide, is due to work a certain EJ Crane is editor for 41 years until 1956 when he became the first director of the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) or the transformation of the organization in an operating division of ACS.
seems useful to recall some milestones in the CA. In 1965 we introduce the CAS Chemical Registry System. The consequent use of the CAS Registry Number, to identify substances, preventing the use of terms often ambiguous. Chemists can count on accurate information, useful both for research and to avoid hazards to health and environment. In 1968 he started the use of magnetic tape to record data and information available. The year 1980 is adopted, "CAS on-line, to make available to researchers the CAS Registry database. The 1983 ACS and FIZ Karlsruhe STN sign an agreement to prepare an international online network that became operational the following year. The 1995 was introduced the "SciFinder" a tool that allows direct access to the CAS database.
development and success of the ACS are unstoppable. To give an idea of \u200b\u200bits size and the information work carried out during the 20th century, just remember that it has approximately 160 000 employees, distributed throughout the world, while on the premises are occupied almost 2,000 people. Among its editors and authors have included over 200 Nobel laureates. Publishes 39 scientific journals. Fino al 2009 ha raccolto e riportato 27 milioni di estratti di articoli scientifici. Il 7 settembre 2009 il CAS ha annunciato di aver registrato nel CAS Registry, con il numero 1181081-51-51, la 50 milionesima molecola, una nuova “arilmetilidene eterociclica” avente proprietà analgesiche (7).

Merci

Nel corso del 20° secolo un gran numero di nuove molecole, fra quelle scoperte e sintetizzate, viene utilizzato per produrre merci di ogni genere (prodotti farmaceutici, vernici, pesticidi, tessuti, oli lubrificanti, ecc.), che vengono immessi al consumo, spesso senza una adeguata precedente sperimentazione circa la loro innocuità per la salute umana e l’ambiente. Alcuni di questi provocano disastri8, others reveal the dangerous long-term environmental and health9. Arises the need to quickly and accurately identify the characteristics of these new goods in order to prepare carefully the terms of their transport, their management, the actions to be taken in case of accidents. It is clear that the only way forward, once again, is to mark each product with a code to be used if necessary to connect it to a file containing all the necessary information (method of storage, transport, type interventions in case of accidents, etc.).. This need is strongly felt first in the shipping industry, where since the early 50 'there had been a series of disasters caused by some goods while navigazione10. A special UN body is at work and soon compile a volume loose-known as the Blue Book, showing the manner of handling and storing goods to be transported. Way that all the commanders of merchant ships must comply or risk losing insurance coverage provided by the P & I Club in London or other insurance companies. Followed by similar volumes for transportation by rail, by land and by air (11).
regard then the general management of chemicals, in order to reduce hazards to the environment and human health in these recent years, many provisions are enacted at both UN and EU, concerning the modalities of registration, classification and labeling of the same. Since these rules are not always consistent with each other, then you feel the need to act again in order to harmonize and update the same (12). In the UN, under the pressure of the decisions adopted at the UN Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the GHS is processed (13) for the management of these substances. In Europe was the REACH Regulation 1907/2006, then completed with the Regulation No 1272/2008, "CLP - Classification, Labelling, Packaging, in force since 20 January 2009 (OJEU L 353 / 2008). The REACH and CLP, side by side, now constitute the regulatory framework for all aspects of chemicals, and as such, that contained in mixtures or goods.
The latter, however, sooner or later become waste. It wastes are also produced during the production process. He was born as a result the need for action on waste also give them specific names and codes in order to unequivocally follow the various phases of their operation, always with the aim of preventing damage to the environment and human health.

Waste

Since the late '70s in Europe, but also in the states of North America, explodes a hectic legislative activity to address the growing problems caused by environmental pollution. The increase in population, industrialization driven by the wild growth of consumption, an increasing impact on the environment, damaging, often irreversibly, the quality of air, water and land. Scientific journals, but also in the press and other media, appear new terms and concepts, never heard before, such as dioxin, PCBs, acid rain, eutrophication, methylmercury, hexachlorophene, thalidomide, etc.. And there's books describing the U.S. this is even more alarming: the silent spring, food that kills, the ring of King Solomon, etc.. To fight or at least counteract the progressive deterioration of the environment is the easiest recourse to law or the adoption of rules now known as "command and control." It would take too long to remember the river of rules laid down in those years, the last two decades of the twentieth century, both in Europe and North America and most industrialized countries of the Far East. The fact is that at the beginning of the third millennium begins to notice that despite the rules and related penalties, the deterioration of the environment continues unabated with the unrelenting growth of population and excessive proliferation of rules and regulations. The legal instrument not only proves insufficient, but if misused, even counterproductive. In our country, launched in the wake alarm by scholars (some come to feel that the environment also die from too much attention), 2002, the then Environment Minister in charge is forced to admit (14) that "too many laws end up however, inevitably become unfit for achieving the objectives: either the public administration know how to implement and enforce them. " Admission is caused "hyper production of legislation and bureaucratic excesses, is the fact that" Italian companies (ma anche quelle degli altri Paesi europei) devono compilare ogni anno 3 milioni di moduli impiegando 50 milioni di ore di lavoro e spendendo oltre 700 milioni di euro”. Continua detto Ministro ricordando il proliferare di “registri, formulari, moduli, albi speciali e iscrizioni farraginose, contraddittorie e sbagliate che penalizzano gli imprenditori e possono costituire anche uno stimolo alla violazione delle regole”. Non si può non convenire con queste osservazioni, solo che dopo otto anni nulla è cambiato, il proliferare delle leggi continua e quelle errate precedenti non vengono migliorate. Gira in questi giorni in Parlamento, per l’approvazione, un disegno di legge che interviene pesantemente sulla parte IV del D. Lgs. n. 152/0615. Just take a look at the changes listed in order to understand the many issues raised by the quality standards that are not even want to touch touched. Among these, to remain unchanged is the European Waste Catalogue, better known as the EWC codes. Codes on the paper were to simplify the life of professionals (police, waste producers, public administration, etc..), But in fact have increased the confusion and the work of those who are forced to use them. Let's see why, but not before pointing out that the environment is the only sector where the introduction of codes has worsened the situation before, increasing uncertainty and doubt. The ERC



The list of wastes for coding was founded in 1994 with the decision of the Commission of the European No 94/3/CEE16, followed soon after by Decision No 94/904/EC concerning the list of hazardous waste (17), in order to give each case a code, to report on all documents concerning the various stages of their management: storage, transport, recovery or disposal. Both of these decisions come in the Italian legislation as an attachment point A 2 (referring to the European Waste Catalogue) and Annex D (relating to hazardous waste codes) to the Decree of 5 February 1997, n. 22. The latter, which implements Directive 91/156/EEC on waste, 91/689/EEC on hazardous waste and 94/62/EC on packaging and packaging waste, replacing the DPR 915/82, did not leave a good memory (18), because postponing the resolution of many problems in future regulations that were never issued. Problems never solved even after the decree in lieu thereof, the first mentioned (D. Lgs. N.152/06).
It reads in Annex A that the "catalog is a classification under a common terminology throughout the Community in order to improve all activities related to waste management. In this regard, the ERC should become the basic reference of the Community's waste statistics .... " The goals ERC must be that of improvement of all activities of waste management as well as enabling the development of statistics at Community level.
Stakeholders, however, did not have time to take possession of the mechanisms for the use of such codes, the list is radically altered as a result of another decision of the Commission, which is launching a new catalog 2000/532/CE19 known as "CER 2002", replacing the previous one. With ERC 2002, abolished in the previous year and 280 codes are introduced 470 new codes, much to the consternation of those concerned, especially for producers or holders of waste that are found in the need to change the codici precedenti sia per compilare registri di carico e scarico, sia i MUD, sia i formulari di identificazione e, soprattutto, accertare se fra i rifiuti gestiti vi sono quelli da riclassificare come pericolosi. Le aziende che hanno poi come attività la gestione dei rifiuti devono anche modificare l’iscrizione all’Albo dei gestori ambientali20. L’individuazione del codice da attribuire a un rifiuto in molti casi non è semplice, ed è ancora più difficoltoso, in alcuni casi, capire se si tratta di rifiuto pericoloso o meno. Tralasciamo quest’ultimo aspetto perché esuleremmo dagli scopi della presente nota, per dare un’occhiata all’iter da seguire per individuare i codici. Ricordiamo solo che quando un rifiuto has already been identified as hazardous its CER is marked with an asterisk.

The allocation of codes.

The allocation of a code for a waste is a task for the producer or in the absence to the holder, as the setting of the catalog is based on knowledge of the production cycle.
codes that mark the waste listed in the catalog consists of three pairs of numbers. The first pair that goes from 01 to 20 is the chapter and indicate the source from which the waste is generated or the production cycle as we could say better. But not always. Follow this logic chapters ranging from 01 to 12 and 17 to 20. Who knows why. The waste producer the search should start in these chapters. If your search is unsuccessful should review chapters 13, 14 and 15 which are attached to certain types of wastes (waste oil, solvents, coolants, packaging, etc.).. Finally, there is a chapter buffer, save list, 16 in which it is used when it can not encode the waste differently, with previous research (here is a list of-life vehicles, waste electrical and electronic products out of specification, explosives, catalysts, etc.., in bulk and without any order). These are the instructions given in the introduction of D mentioned above. In reality the 16 is also connected to certain types of waste, then you do not understand the strange distribution of the code that does not follow any criteria, so from time to time appropriate to consider them all to find what you need.
The other two pairs of numbers indicate, within each chapter, the particular type of waste. But do not let too many illusions, because the information is often generic. For example, in Chapter 02 (Wastes from agriculture, horticulture, aquaculture, forestry, hunting and fishing, and food preparation) is that the code 020203 are "materials unsuitable for consumption and processing." What do you mean? If they were no longer usable waste.
If, however, the search for other due coppie di numeri è infruttuosa si può ricorrere al codice che termina con 99. Per ritornare all’esempio precedente basta usare il codice 020299 per codificare il proprio rifiuto scrivendo a fianco il nome, che evidentemente il legislatore non conosce perché altrimenti avrebbe provveduto con un codice ad hoc. I codici col finale 99 contrassegnati con la dicitura “rifiuti non specificati altrimenti” sono numerosissimi circa 70, a testimoniare la certezza o l’ignoranza da parte degli estensori di aver trascurato molti rifiuti. E’ superfluo far notare che ricorrendo al codice 99, scrivendo a fianco il nome del rifiuto, si toglie il fine e l’utilità del codice stesso, che è proprio quello di evitare descrizioni.
In the search for a code can also happen the other way and that the person finds that it declined in most chapters, venendosi find it necessary to choose a code rather than another. A company authorized to collect waste, for example, find the "packaging waste" is in Chapter 1501 .. that chapter in 2001 .. Which to use? Chapter 20, then, raises further doubts and uncertainties. The intention of the legislature should be used to encode and express only municipal waste (those produced by households and street cleaning), including those arising from the collection (hence the confusion on the packaging first cited). Follows that the codes from 01 to 19 relate only to those products or waste from production of any kind. But there is a complication between the municipal waste the legislature, with the D. Legislative Decree No. 152/06 (and all previous legislation), also includes "waste of any nature and origin, lying on the streets and public areas ..." (Article 184, paragraph d, paragraph 2). It follows that if a special waste is abandoned on a street, its code is changed to take the one for Chapter 20, if you find it. But you can always resort to 200199 or 200399. Thus, rejection is always that but the codes change depending on circumstances. It 's like the freshman engine or a gun or the ISBN of a book should change according to the place where they are.
To complicate matters often involved some circulars from the Ministry of Environment. For the abandoned syringes in public places, for example, which by definition should be municipal waste, circulars indicate the use of the code * 180103, in which among other things, it is difficult to identify the syringes (the term is appropriate because: "hazardous waste collection and disposal is subject to special").
going through the catalog are also waste that should not be regarded as not covered by D. Legislative Decree 152/06. Among these we find explosives che nel catalogo vengono indicati con i codici 160401*, 160402* e 160403*. Ma si trovano anche rifiuti che non esistono più. Con il CER 061304* si indicano i rifiuti derivanti dalla lavorazione dell’amianto. C’è qualcuno in Europa che continua a lavorare l’amianto?

Conclusioni

Un semplice esame dei documenti citati, pone in evidenza una lunga serie di incongruenze, omissioni, errori dovuti probabilmente all’assenza, nei comitati o commissioni che procedono alla loro elaborazione, di merceologi o studiosi di discipline affini (Tecnologie dei cicli produttivi, ecc.).
Il sistema utilizzato per codificare i rifiuti, organizzato secondo la fonte di provenienza, non è condivisibile for the simple reason that leads to duplication or repetition with consequent uncertainty. The use of codes 13, 14 15 and 16 is the clearest proof of the failure criterion adopted. The issue of encryption is not to be neglected. The agents of the NOE stop when a lorry load of waste is mainly the use of ERC guidelines to control the loads. On the other hand, the adoption of Sistri or traceability of waste will not be effective without the use of codes clear and unequivocal. But do not be very optimistic. The bill mentioned above, pending, which occurs on the fourth of D. Legislative Decree 152/06, the same reports as an attachment CER earlier. Nobody has bothered to check them.



References (1). The ISBN (International Standard Book Number), as is known, is a code size, from 1 January 2007, 13 digits (the first was 10 digits) divided by hyphens into 5 parts division, which equates to an international level title of a particular publisher. ISBN may be generated by a bar code to use the machine-readable. For periodicals using the ISSN (International Standard Serial Number) to identify the head. For musical works in their entirety using the ISWC (shares are attributed to other codes. For example, the sheet music for the ISMN in a video recording of an ISAN, etc...) For sound recordings using the ISRC. To identify digital items such as text files, images, music and audiovisual using the DOI (Digital Object Identifier), while the resources on the Internet are identified by the URN (Uniform Resource Names).
(2). Conventionally, the transition is made to coincide with the publication in 1661, the famous book by Boyle (1627-1691), "The Sceptical Chymist", regarded as the act of death of alchemy. Who wants to learn more quickly and alchemy, we recommend the beautiful book of EJ Holmyard, "History of Alchemy", Library Sansoni, Firenze, 1959.
(3). DI Mendeleev (1834 - 1907) published his first periodic table in 1869, stating that "the properties of elements vary periodically with increasing atomic mass." On this scientist were written thousands of pages. Who understood by the parties of S. Petersburg recommend a visit to her home-museum at the local university, the most famous because it houses the library world's longest. The Moscow Metro is a station named after Mendeleev, easily identifiable not only by name, even chandeliers in the shape of molecules.
(4). The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry was founded in 1919 by a team of chemists from certain industries and universities, which had noted the need to adopt internationally standardized methods for weighing, measuring, naming chemical compounds already known and those that were synthesized. In this scientific association, international, non-governmental organizations participating 45 nations plus 20 others in various ways connected with the first. Work together more than 1000 chemicals around the world, divided into eight divisions, which in turn consist of various committees. Over time, areas of interest to the IUPAC are expanded to include the study of socio-political impacts of the chemical (availability of raw materials, food chemistry and environmental issues). Currently, the IUPAC care also the publication of a series of books known as "Nomenclature series books" or "Color Books" (Compendium of Chemical Terminology - Gold Book, Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry - Red Book, etc.)..
(5). For more information, see: R. Willstätter, "Zue Hundertjahrfeier des Chemischen Zentralblattes", Angew. Chem. 1929, 42 p.. 1049; C. Weiske, "Das Chemische Zentralblatt - ein Nachruf", Chemische Berichte 1973, 106.
(6). AA Noyes was a professor of physical chemistry at MIT and the Review was initially a supplement of MIT's Technology Quarterly.
(7). For more information refer to B. Leoci and M. Ruberti, "The nomenclature and codification of the elements, compounds, goods and waste: lights and shadows", in Proceedings of the Conference "The environmental management systems for environmentally sustainable development of the territory", University of Sassari, Alghero-Island dell, 24 to 25 June 2010.
(8). Are well known by the thalidomide disaster, the talcum powder all'esaclorofene from methylmercury, dioxin and many other products.
(9). Among them enough to remember DDT, PCBs, asbestos, which had also proved very useful for different purposes.
(10). See M. Ruberti, B. Leoci, "A dangerous goods transport: calcium hypochlorite, in Proceedings of the XXIV National Congress of Commodity Sciences, Torino / Sunrise 23 to 25 June 2009.
(11). M. Ruberti, G. Map, "The main international legal regulations for the transport of dangerous goods", in Proceedings of the XXIV National Congress of Commodity Sciences, Torino / Sunrise 23 to 25 June 2009.
(12). See S. Massari, M. Ruberti, "The harmonization of international registration, classification and labeling of chemicals. Consequences for Italy, "in Proceedings of the XXIV National Congress of Commodity Sciences, Torino / Sunrise 23 to 25 June 2009.
(13). UN, "Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals ", New York and Geneva, 2003, ST/SG/AC.10/30. Updated in 2007.
14. Read the presentation "The new rules and classification of waste. CER 2002, Union of Chambers and CONAI, Hyper Editions, Venice, 2002.
(15). Legislative Decree 2 April 2006, No 152, "Environmental Regulations" (OJ n.88/06).
(16). Adopted following Article. 1 bed. A) of Directive 75/442/EEC as amended by Directive 91/156/EEC.
(17). Adopted under Article. 1, paragraph 4 of Directive 91/689/EEC.
(18). Now from both the Neapolitan named as the Order of the insane, as the 22, in Cabala Napoletana, è appunto il numero dei pazzi.
(19). A sua volta modificata dalle decisioni 2001/118/CE, 2001/119/CE e 2001/573/CE.
(20). Quest’Albo ha cambiato nome diverse volte da quando è stato istituito (con legge 29 ottobre 1987, n. 441). Attualmente si chiama Albo dei gestori ambientali. Le ditte per poter esercitare come attività la raccolta e il trasporto dei rifiuti oltre ad altri servizi devono essere iscritte in questo albo.

What Do You Write On A Retirement Cake

Hafnium Indium

2011 anno internazionale della chimica

I lettori che “battono” con le dita sulla tastiera di un computer ed esigono che sullo schermo appaia quello che si vuole, un testo, una figura, un film, those who are enchanted by the proposals, more often, computers cheaper and always faster, usually do not think that efficiency and speed depend on small straterelli of special materials, chips, in which are stored results of continuous research and improvements not only in electronics, but also their own materials.

We talk about the "society of silicon, but silicon is only one component and often not the most important of chips. Refinements of semiconductors (which are the soul of chips) have been made with a metal little known but very important, hafnium. Its existence was been advocated by the great Russian chemist Mendeleev (1834-1907): the "write" in 1869, his periodic table of chemical elements, arranged in order of increasing importance and similarity of behavior, he saw that there was a "hole" Section 72, which was below the element zirconium, which deals with the box number 40. He should be an element with similar behavior to that of zirconium, but Mendeleev believed that the empty seat was occupied by lanthanum.

Only in 1923, the Danish chemist Dirk Coster (1889-1950) and Hungarian chemist Georg von Hevesy (1885-1966, Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1943) were able to isolate some of the mineral zircon a metal that had properties similar to those of the element missing from the box 72 and the hafnium named after the Latin name of the Danish capital, Copenhagen.

The metal is produced as a by-product of zirconium, with considerable difficulty because of the similarity of the two elements. Hafnium has already had applications in the nuclear industry for slowing down the neutrons and some other industrial uses; carbide, hafnium carbide is the higher melting temperature, hafnium alloys are extremely resistant to corrosion. Do not know the world production of this metal, mainly concentrated in Australia, South Africa and China. Some statistics news and merchandise are available at the U.S. Geological Survey USGS here.

is to be expected that the discovery of new super-fast chip-based semiconductor containing silicate and hafnium oxide, upon increasing the demand for and production and have already started mining of mineral zircon, which contain from one to 5% of hafnium, in Madagascar, Mozambique and other African countries.

Secondhand Garden Tools

2011 years of the international chemical

Boron-Aluminum-Gallium-Indium-Thallium, as chemists learned to recite the names of the elements of the third "period" as you call columns of Table of Mendeleev. Boron and aluminum, we knew what they were, but that index, named after the charming, very few knew.

Indium was discovered in 1863 by Ferdinand Reich (1799-1882) and Theodor Richter (1824-1898) who had called so because it emits radiation with a line of indigo blue color, looks like shiny metal, silvery gray, soft, and has remained a curiosity for many decades. In 1925 there was only one gram in the world, extracted from the dross of zinc ore processing, the demand for indium increases during the Second World War (1939-1945) when it was discovered that the ductile metal is well suited as a lubricant of aircraft engine bearings fast.

Its output increased slowly until a few tonnes per year, absorbed by the electricity and nuclear, until it was discovered the use in electronic equipment and semiconductor properties were recognized. Photovoltaic solar cells are made of indium phosphide and gallium arsenide.

But the explosion of the use of indium, especially in the form of indium tin oxide, there was the invention of liquid crystal displays for televisions and computers. Indium is produced industrially for the processing of by-products of zinc (an example of recovery of goods profits from waste) and recycling of its waste and its production has increased from 60 tonnes per year in 1950 to approximately 600 tonnes per year in 2008. The largest producer of indium, as usual, China (330 tonnes / year), followed by Japan, Canada and Korea. More news and commodity index statistics are available at the U.S. Geological Survey, USGS .

The Indian market is turbulent, such as metals and strategic goods, the commodities. Its price was $ 100 per kilo in 2002 and $ 1000 per kg at the end of 2005, the summer of 2009 had fallen to $ 300 per kg to go up in October 2009 to $ 450 per kg (about 300 € / kg), and rise again in September 2010, $ 560 / kg (approximately 430 € / kg). You can follow the evolution of prices of indium here. This turbulence is due to the cost of production, the fear that the future availability of indium is limited (some speak of reserves for a few years) than to the demands of the consumer electronics market, but also to the fact that other metals could be replaced in many applications: the hafnium control rods in nuclear reactors, gallium arsenide solar cells.

Curiously enough a small production of India had in Italy in the zinc refinery of Croton, whose toxic wastes that are buried underground schools and streets of the city thrived. In 1990 the company Pertusola Crotone produced 11 tons of indium, in 1992 20 tonnes, by 1995 the production has ceased and the plant was shut down, just when increased demand for this metal. Another case of bad weather merchandise.

Oovoo Doesn't Detect Camera

Folium: Commodity journal, Environment and

2011 International Year of Chemistry

E 'release the file for the 2nd quarter, April to June 2010, vol. 10, the magazine Folium , already mentioned in this newsletter: http://notiziario-di-merceologia.blogspot.com/2010/04/folium-rivista-di-merceologia-ambiente.html here

A long article by prof. Vincenzo Riganti University of Pavia reports on a survey by the World Health Organization WHO and UNICEF (the UN agency for child care) about water issues worldwide.

Other contributions concern the national and Community legislation on combating pollution, the use of renewable energy sources, dangerous substances and the prevention of fires and accidents in industry and construction.

Why Am I Wet Before My Period

Dr. Ure, a very presentable product index

2011 years of the international chemical

Andrew Ure (1778-1857)

Giorgio Nebbia

Let me introduce Dr. Andrew Ure (1778-1857), chemicals and goods of prestige in England in the first half of the nineteenth century, the author of numerous treatises and an encyclopedia of industrial products, anticipating that "science" in the service the capitalist factories, ready to minimize the grounds for any claim, by workers and citizens, recognizing the right to health.

Its history is important because the 'ineffable Dr. Ure, "as he calls Marx's famous thirteenth chapter of the first book of" Capital ", has created countless followers who are still prepared to minimize the hazards factory, the effects of pollution, the damage caused by radioactive substances.

Over the years he lived Ure England was subjected to strong social turmoil. The laws of time --- England had just emerged victorious from the wars against Napoleon and his industry was growing, thanks to a vibrant entrepreneurial class and the raw materials taken from the rich colonies --- that allowed boys and girls and young women worked to ten hours or more per day in the mines and mills. The girls and boys, with their little fingers, were well suited to quickly resume the threads which were broken in the new fast machines for spinning, weaving, the children were in the midst of the tanks products chimici per il lavaggio. Ancora peggiori erano le condizioni nelle miniere di carbone dove i piccoli operai spingevano pesanti carrelli in mezzo alla polvere, all'umidità, in promiscuità con gli adulti.

Per i piccoli lavoratori non c'era tempo per l'istruzione; arrivati stanchi a casa, trovavano stanze fredde, poco cibo, genitori tristi e arrabbiati. Alcuni imprenditori avevano organizzato delle specie di ricoveri in cui bambine e bambini dormivano e ricevano un poco di cibo e così potevano essere più puntuali sul lavoro la mattina; in premio la domenica potevano seguire lezioni di catechismo che insegnavano anche la riconoscenza e la fedele devozione ai datori di lavoro.

In queste condizioni si è formato un movimento, that we might call the rights of child workers, which stood at the head of the British Parliament to pass a law limiting the working hours of children and women. Imagine! if such a law was approved, the cost of labor would increase and this would have clipped the wings that Britain was taking off to the conquest of world markets, according to the moving words of the weekly "Economist".

Because these misguided defenders of children were not silent, the Industrial Association of British gave the task to a person known and prestige, in fact, Dr. Ure, to refute the arguments of opponents. Andrew Ure in 1835 published an entire treatise, entitled "The philosophy of manufactures "(only partially translated into Italian), which showed what they were false allegations of exploitation, with accurate scientific measurements showed that children working in factories were healthier, taller and even more happy with the guys who did not work and maybe they went to school and played free. Needless to say, the movement of workers' rights won, were passed legislation restricting the hours of work, which required better hygienic conditions in the factories and, in spite of Dr. Ure, the rights to health prevailed selfishness and greed.

Again minizio the twenty-first century, leading scientists and scholars, "grandchildren" of Dr. Ure, write texts and organizing campaigns to combat environmental protest movements that spring up here and there in Italy. Those who protest do not know --- explain these diligent defenders waste dump --- that few things are perfect and safe such as landfills and in fact on the ground above it can build soccer fields and amusement parks. Some companies organize tours to the incinerators scattered across Europe to demonstrate their safety and perfection to the mayors who are preparing to authorize the construction of a waste incinerator in their town against the will of the people. Other companies conducting campaigns in favor of nuclear power to erode the credibility of those who do not want and they do not want landfill of radioactive waste. Other campaigns are still organized to illustrate the goodness and benefits of foods derived from genetically modified organisms. These initiatives are "perfect" using all the sophisticated tools of persuasive advertising, together with the authoritativeness of famous names that open fractures even in the same movements of protest or environmentalists.

The fact is that the protest in the name of protecting the health of the environment and eco-terrorism is not as fools who say "no" to everything, in any form of scientific and technological developments that are willing to stay silent if the 'incinerator or power line or not is central in their common, but in the neighboring municipality. History of the protest movement ecological --- except, of course, individual instances of short-sighted selfishness of criminal infiltration or municipal landfill or speculating on the sale or procurement of land --- is nothing more than a page long struggle for the conquest new rights: in this case the right to health for themselves and for future generations, the right to have a clean environment from poisons. History shows that in many cases --- as happened in the days of Dr. Ure --- The protest was directed against the facts and real dangers that were minimized or kept hidden by governments or companies. And every time I won the challenge, the world has become better.

Where Do I Get Free Bmx Stickers

Chemistry and profanity?

2011 international year of chemistry

Global Village (Bari), 5, (19), 11-16 (September 2002)

Giorgio Nebbia nebbia@quipo.it

talk about how chemistry is often present in good a sister company from stormy past. "Chemistry" is a word displeasing to many ears, especially poorly informed, for various reasons, apparently conflicting.

The first is the way the mainstream media talk about things in which the chemical is involved, there lacked nothing but attacks with "chemical weapons" in addition to accidents "chemical" reckless use the "chemistry" in agriculture, etc., to emphasize anything unpleasant associated with the adjective "chemical". There is no doubt that industrial accidents, poisoning of workers in factories, pollution of the environment often occur in chemical plants or handling chemical products and by chemicals. There is no doubt that many factories produce harmful substances, sometimes useless, sometimes obscene as agents of war, those from poison gas and tear gas to incapacitate.

There is no doubt that the discovery of fraud, including toxic substances in water and food, of herbicides in wells are the result of misuse and violent of chemicals and a large popular movement that rightly calls for more severe regolamentazioni nella produzione, nella circolazione e nell'uso di prodotti chimici industriali e commerciali.

Il secondo motivo della dubbia fama della chimica sta nella maniera in cui la corporazione dei produttori chimici reagisce alle critiche di quelli che sono sbrigativamente liquidati come "ecologisti" o "verdi". La risposta messa in circolazione attraverso male orchestrate campagne di stampa è melensa e poco convincente e suscita una reazione di rigetto nell'opinione pubblica. Non basta mobilitare grandi compagnie di pubblicità e pubbliche relazioni per essere credibili e convincenti quando si presenta l'immagine che la chimica è per definizione buona e benefica per l'umanità e che pertanto i fabbricanti di prodotti chimici must be valued and praised as those who spread the good inherent in the chemical industry.

Again the excessive zeal of the apologists often falls into the ridiculous. There is no doubt that the substances in the blood are made up of chemical molecules --- and what else should they be? --- And that the food needed for survival, the drugs that save the lives of people, colors that decorate the fabrics, cosmetics that make nice, clean appearance, are made of chemicals. There is no doubt that chemicals are --- although it is generally handled by non-chemical --- the analysis to recognize the disease.

But it is equally true that the history of recent years is full of incidents of damage health and the environment caused by industrial chemicals and not because these substances are "chemicals" but because they were careless and incompetent producers, transporters, users. And do not serve either the "chemical" or the entrepreneurs with the hearing office made by the willing "scientists" and academics and critics who ridicule their ignorance. These defenses have the taste of things already heard: even the manufacturers of the 1800 British responded to the challenge of those who wanted it reduced the working hours of children and that they were mgliorate improve working conditions in factories mobilizing scientists. It 'was the famous Dr. Andrew Ure, chemical and production, which, pieno di zelo, ha scritto un intero libro, "La filosofia delle manifatture" (una traduzione parziale in italiano e' stata pubblicata nella "Biblioteca dell'economista", seconda serie, volume 3, dall'Unione Tipografico-editrice di Torino nel 1863), per dimostrare come il lavoro nelle filande e nelle miniere fosse giovevole alla salute dei fanciulli, tolti dalla strada e dai suoi vizi, educati a diventare buoni futuri operai ubbidienti e rispettosi dei proprietari.

Il terzo motivo, legato ai due precedenti, del poco buon nome della chimica nell'immaginario popolare, sta nella diffusa ignoranza della chimica. Persone colte e intelligenti, che sanno parlare con competenza di letteratura e musica e arte, "intellettuali", come they say, dare, their ignorance of the strong chemistry, often foolish to make judgments about the failures and flaws of the "chemistry".

There 'no doubt that chemistry is taught little and often badly in high school --- where also about 350 000 students each year are "forced" to take some chemistry course --- on the basis of texts sometimes (often) are modest and boring. What little knowledge stuck to my mind, sometimes without going beyond 'a few phrases, repeated like litanies, are the ideal ground to give birth to distorted ideas and common ground and true nonsense. There is therefore surprising that journalists, parliamentarians, administrators, often educated and careful, straparlano quando si tratta di esprimere dei giudizi sulla chimica.

Si aggiunga che la situazione è scoraggiante benché in Italia esistono decine di migliaia di laureati in chimica, centinaia di professori universitari di discipline chimiche, la cui voce si sente troppo poco e quasi niente, come se ci fosse un pudore nell'intervenire e nel parlare della loro scienza. Salvo poi talvolta intervenire per una apologia della chimica con un eccesso di zelo e quindi poco credibili. Una volta Linus Pauling (premio Nobel per la chimica e poi premio Nobel per la pace) scrisse che bisogna invece imparare a parlare a qualcuno che non siano le proprie provette. La stessa massima società italiana dei chimici, la Società Chimica Italiana, con poche migliaia members, mostly members of the academic world, known magazines, however, a very limited circulation, it is unknown to the public as well not exist.

Unlike other national chemical societies and in particular that of America, the American Chemical Society, which publishes a weekly newspaper, the well known Chemical and Engineering News that it mobilizes its members speak in local television, which organizes national days of chemistry, Chemistry Olympiad, which induces the government to print commemorative stamps of chemistry and chemists, and so on.

This situation means that in Italy there are very few journals in chemistry, with limited movement, no a truly informative and popular character, which are only a few or very few popular books on chemistry, whose knowledge for the general public are handled by the brief encounter in high school, with school texts. There is in Italy a good dictionary or a good encyclopedia of popular chemistry. And 'natural enough that even the translators of foreign newspaper articles storpino chemical names, which becomes silicon silicone, which becomes iodine iodine, carbohydrates that become hydrocarbons, and so on.

But never like this when a chemical culture is crucial for protecting the health of citizens and also to give new breath to a feeble industry. Never before at this time the chemical problems are central for the economy and progress. Just read the Official Journal of the European Communities or officials of the Italian Republic to see that more and more often there are whole files, the real volumes, full of chemical information, formulas, synonyms, proposals for unification, full of standardized methods of analysis to recognize the purity of the substances, to defeat the fraud, to reveal pollution. The symbol of the CAS Chemical Abstracts Service is also used in the texts of the law now goes where the number, initials and the name of the substances that enter the medicines, cosmetics, pesticides, and so on.

than ever at this time the survival of the civilian industrial countries depends on strengthening public services and environmental monitoring products, services that require chemical methods of inquiry practiced by chemists. With all the talk is of European unity, we must realize that we can be if they demonstrate a truly European public and private companies have advanced technologies and in this progress has an important role in chemistry and chemists have. Never before at this time we would need a degree in chemical preparations, proud of their culture and their skill and ability, knowing the role they can play in civil society.

With all due respect to the other natural sciences and experimental chemistry is perhaps the only one that offers the welding between the laws Fundamental matter and the application of these laws to daily life, the metabolism of food to the beauty of the colors of butterfly wings or flower petals, the major flows of materials that form the basis of the economy.

Chemistry is the science of accounting fact of nature. The balance of chemical reactions is no budget "cheap" it, by definition, must be in balance, everything there 'on the left to find a formula must be right: the subject must always find it all. And now here we find the differences between the accounts of nature and that "economic monetary union". Even economists are the accounts of money: the money spent must be equal a quelli guadagnati. Ma le "cose" materiali che sono descritte con gli scambi monetari sono soltanto una piccola parte di quelle che interessano la vita reale.

Nel bilancio di una fabbrica, per esempio, la contabilità monetaria tiene conto soltanto delle materie che si comprano e si vendono. Se pensiamo ad una fabbrica di acciaio contano il minerale di ferro e il carbone, che si ottengono in cambio di soldi, ma nella contabilità monetaria non figura l'ossigeno che si ottiene gratis nell'aria che serve per bruciare parzialmente il carbone trasformandolo in ossido di carbonio che riduce gli ossidi di ferro in ferro e ghisa. La ghisa e l'acciaio e l'energia entrano nella contabilità economica perché si comprano e si vendono, ma nella reaction are formed --- a trivial and obvious thing for a chemist --- dust and carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide and slag which are not included in economic accounting because they are thrown into the air or in a landfill. Except one day realize that people complain about the fumes that are "things" and materials that need to measure the quantity and chemical composition, and that we must filter out and kill or collect
not to pollute the air or soil.

The ecological context was actually born by the attention given to the adverse effects of all the things that chemistry has always known --- the ones that are left and right of each formula --- but that the traditional economy and practical stage have long ignored. Hence the great importance and relevance of educational value accounting chemistry. A minimum of attention

chemical may suggest to those who use those chemical laboratories that have the sink or the toilet that the mass of materials --- food debris, soapy solutions, excrement --- coming out of our daily life does not disappear but ends up in sewers and then into the sewage treatment works and into rivers and the sea. The accounts and the household ecology of the ecosystem, are as important as the ecology of the factory or the city.

Another important aspect of the educational value of the chemical is in the habit to think in three dimensions. All things are in three dimensions, but we are used to draw up a sheet on a plane. The chemical knowledge continuously offers the opportunity to help you imagine, to think and "see" the bodies in space. The water molecule-two academic or HOH, has all its quirks, which are essential for life, just the fact that each molecule binds in the space not only to other water molecules, but to all bodies to which closer and it comes in contact.

The carbon chemistry owes its beauty and its appeal to its three-dimensional character of the atoms and molecules, and even if we are forgotten, the discovery of this character was a real cultural revolution. Unfortunately we can not do without, for practical reasons, to write formulas su un piano, ma forse questo stesso limite è un'occasione per ricordare continuamente che le molecole sono sempre tante, tutte insieme e distribuite in tutte le direzioni.

Una intuizione tridimensionale ha risolto problemi di conoscenza fondamentale della vita. Alla fine degli anni quaranta del secolo scorso il chimico americano Linus Pauling ebbe, come sopra ricordato, il premio Nobel per aver "pensato" che le molecole delle proteine fossero disposte ad elica, come si vide sperimentalmente meglio in seguito. Questa intuizione da sola permise di risolvere tutti i misteri del comportamento delle proteine, pietre costitutive fondamentali della vita. Una decina di anni dopo Watson e Crickett ottennero il premio Nobel per aver scoperto la struttura del DNA, a chain of molecules of sugar, phosphoric acid and some "bases (adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine), arranged in a" double helix "in space. The spatial arrangement of thousands of atoms of each molecule of DNA has allowed to explain the functioning of these molecules essential for "manufacture" of each protein, is always the same specification for each part of each living being.

The chemical knowledge allows an explanation of how they are made and how they can be produced things, objects, materials found in nature and everyday life. The chemistry was established with the aim to explain and describe natural phenomena and at the same time, to solve practical problems
: Bleaching and dyeing of textiles, food preservation, leather tanning, the fermentation of bread. Scientific research in chemistry has been originated and had its greatest success in relation to such matters "practical": the Nobel prize to Haber for the discovery of the conditions allowing the synthesis of ammonia, the Nobel Prize for discoveries that have Natta allowed to synthesize polypropylene. Probably a recognition of the importance of the aspects "practical" chemistry would also help the public to recognize in it not only a science closer to everyday life, but rather the first science of life and things that surround us.

Although the chemical helps to understand and explain many aspects of even apparently vulgar life: why certain polluting goods, which is the composition of the waste, one gets the impression that the chemistry of the kitchen and cabinet space and have little dignity in teaching chemistry. The merchandise, for example, which are the chemicals involved in these vulgar aspects of chemistry, chemicals are generally considered second-class.

Better chemical culture would also help many other activities and disciplines. Consider, for example, the cultural gap that exists in Italy in the history of chemistry, history of pharmacy, history of product categories, and compare it with the fact that the professional historian, archaeologist or more have to dealing with chemical problems dealing with evil sometimes superficially, sometimes stammering inaccurate things, with increasing difficulty of meeting with professionals who know chemistry.

There is another lesser known aspect of chemistry. Public opinion, but also average students, chemistry is a science-established, full of certainties, and if something new appears on the horizon you should look for in fabulous horizons of biotechnology and advanced materials, as they say. A wrong impression: the world around us is still full of mystery chemicals, even in more mundane fields. She mentions, for example, starch, lignin and cellulose, the foundation stones of the world vegetale.La cellulose attracts attention paper as an ingredient, starch as an ingredient of bread and pasta, and more recently, the fake "plastic" biodegradable. But we are facing a field full of mysteries. Each plant contains starch, lignin, cellulose, with characters different from others, the composition of these macromolecules has a statistical nature for which you must speak in the plural of starch, cellulose, and so on.

With a little attention and curiosity, it turns out, for example, that the starch from different grains have different qualities, so much so that some (corn) you can make bread and other (like corn) no . The same characterization of grain and its milling products based on starch, protein, fat and ash is a rough approximation. One senses, but they know little, that starch, protein and fat are linked together into "complex" fat-protein, starch and fat, starch and proteins, and their existence may explain the fact that durum wheat has different characters from wheat, although the chemical analysis of the main components are roughly in almost equal quantity. Among the chemical mysteries of bread there is the phenomenon of the recovery, so the stale bread, "old" two or three days, which is heated, the soft elastic recoil as in the freshly baked bread, although this character disappears after a few hours.

Better chemical culture would clarify some "great" mysteries, as the hole in the ozone layer or the greenhouse effect due to changes in atmospheric chemistry, but also enables to understand and explore many other things, food, cosmetics, dye and preparations for waving hair, precautions to take when you have to wash and iron, chemical mechanisms --- --- solar photocells which operate the machines or facsimile transmission, best known as "fax", or "hearts" of computers and mobile phones All objects that are the basis of production and mass consumption. If he knew more, perhaps many dangers and drawbacks and mistakes would be avoided.

I think you could, if desired, really give the chemical a joyous and adventurous image and with it a more courageous life, is rendering a service to society, economy, ecology and chemistry --- and to science itself presentable in polite society without shame.

Kates Playground New Zip 2009

SPECIAL TED WONG JEET Kune Do & SURPRISE PARTY AT CAAM MILANO - ITALY

L' ARTE INCONTRA L' ARTE SPECIALE SERATA A SORPRESA TED WONG JEET KUNE DO - ITALY - CAAM - MILANO

Bruce Lee said: "A sculptor to build a statue does not add clay to his subject. Rather begins to chisel away the inessential, so that the truth of its creation is not revealed without obstruction. "

Big surprise for all students of Ted Wong Si Fu!

This year, my birthday, my dear friend Lucia Antonelli had an 'extraordinary idea.

He decided to give me a special gift of martial arts. has ordered a sculptor to model a statue of our beloved Ted Wong Si Fu, the successor to Bruce Lee, who is currently our chief and founder of the JKD TW, spread worldwide.

It 's a great and unique work of' art that honors our school in Milan and all the Italian groups authorized by Ted Wong. I decided to take her to school and share it worldwide, presenting during this event in Milan September 16, 2010.

Ted Wong We would like to be here tonight.

We hope to see him soon again here in Italy.

Alessandra Tassi

President of CAAM

name, references, images, symbols, logos and trademarks associated with Ted Wong Ted Wong are the property of and are used by Jeet Kune Do - CAAM with the express permission of Ted Wong.
No content may be extracted or used in any medium, in whole or in part, without the express permission of Ted Wong. All other trademarks are property of their respective owners.

Ureterovesical Junction Stone

Year of Natural Fibres 3025 SM

La Gazzetta del Mezzogiorno, Thursday, January 22, 2009

Giorgio Nebbia nebbia@quipo.it

The natural fibers are fibrous materials derived from many different plants and animals. The natural fibers of vegetable origin, consisting primarily of cellulose fibers differ in the seed (cotton), the stem fibers (hemp, flax, jute, kenaf, broom), fibers of the fruit (coconut), leaf fibers (sisal , agave, abaca); le fibre di origine animale, costituite da proteine, sono la seta e quelle del vello di pecore, capre, lama, cammelli, vigogne, conigli angora, eccetera. Nel 1960 la produzione di fibre naturali era di 12 milioni di tonnellate contro tre milioni di tonnellate di fibre sintetiche; nel 1994 la produzione di fibre sintetiche è salita a 20 milioni di tonnellate, uguale a quella delle fibre naturali. Nel 2008 la produzione mondiale di fibre sintetiche è salita ancora a circa 40 milioni di tonnellate, mentre quella delle fibre naturali è stata di appena 30 milioni di tonnellate. Un auspicabile aumento della produzione delle fibre naturali, rinnovabili, aiuterebbe molte attività agricole e zootecniche, e contribuirebbe allo sviluppo Economic and social development of many poor countries. Even the material properties of yarns and fabrics are in favor of natural fibers.

the International Year of Natural Fibres, sponsored by FAO, the United Nations Organization for Food and Agriculture based in Rome, and apartments ufficiaòmente January 22, 2009. The initiative aims to bring global attention on the production and use of textile fibers, plant and animal origin, the only ones that have been used for millennia, clothing and furniture.

nineteenth century until the early decades of the twentieth century natural fibers came largely from the colonial and fed, in Europe, a flourishing industry of processing into yarns and fabrics. Over time European countries have tried to free imports of producing substitutes for natural fibers first form of artificial fibers, obtained by chemical processes from natural raw materials (different types of rayon fibers casein) and synthetic fibers obtained by transforming into thin filaments of thermoplastic materials derived from petroleum.

The first synthetic fiber nylon was marketed in 1939, followed by numerous other fibers designed to fit the processes of spinning, washing, dyeing and weaving natural fibers used for. The great success of synthetic fibers has led to a slowdown in growth, some have disappeared, the production of many natural fibers.

For example, Italy was a major producer of hemp in Emilia Romagna, Campania and in Apulia, in the twenties and thirties of the twentieth century the Italian hemp was exported around the world in the next fifty years the decline has begun and now the cultivation of hemp in Italy and the production of fiber have practically disappeared. An interesting study on the growth and decline of cannabis was made in Italy by Benito Leoci, Professor of Commodity Economics at the University of Lecce. Similar fate has been the production of linen, yet a linen mill has operated for years even in Gravina. With the decrease of the required fiber many natural and agricultural areas of the European countries, especially in the backward countries have been affected by economic and social crisis in a few cases of natural fibers has led to local conflicts and internal migration.

attention to the 'ecology' has stirred up in recent years, interest in natural fibers, are considered "green" because obtained from renewable agricultural materials, mainly derived from large biological cycles powered by the sun

Nature has designed and "works" in plants and animals, the fibers with physical chemistry and you get to wear nice clothing fabrics for both d’estate, sia d’inverno, per arredi domestici, anche per applicazioni industriali. Inoltre la produzione delle fibre tessili naturali fa parte di un ciclo produttivo che comprende vari utili sottoprodotti.

Ad esempio il cotone, la più importante fibra tessile naturale di origine vegetale, è la lanuggine che circonda il seme del cotone e la sua produzione (oltre 25 milioni di tonnellate nel 2008) è accompagnata dalla produzione, in quantità doppia rispetto alla massa della fibra, di semi ricchi di olio (circa il 30 % del peso del seme) e di proteine impiegati in settori industriali e alimentari.

La produzione della canapa è accompagnata da residui legnosi, i canapuli, che trovano impiego as fuel or in other fields. The natural fibers are produced and used so far but only a small proportion of fibrous materials obtained from the plants, the initiative of FAO also aims to encourage technical and botanical investigations on other plants suitable to provide textile fibers, making the little-known local experiences and to encourage improvements in the various phases of production of natural fibers: the cultivation or breeding, separation, purification, dyeing, spinning, weaving. Many of these operations have been conducted so far on the local scale and craftsmanship, and their refinements can improve the quality of natural fibers business.

Better knowledge of the natural fibers are needed to increase organ demand in industrial countries and production in poor countries and poor, especially African and Asian countries, whose economies are primarily agricultural to one that can start even social and human development. If you look at the economic geography of natural fibers, the producers come together countries like Bangladesh, Myanmar (formerly Burma) and Nepal where they produce fibers of jute, Kenya, Tanzania and Madagascar, where it produces sisal fibers, extracted from the leaves of various species of agave, particularly suitable for ropes and bags, but also for bags and household equipment, alongside the large producers of cotton are also emerging countries like Bangladesh and Tanzania, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Malaysia produce fibers extracted from coconut shell.

the International Year of Natural Fibres can help to disseminate scientific knowledge and goods in schools and universities. The world of fashion will make an important contribution by offering clothing and accessories with this new but very old, fiber, dedicated to ecology and human development in the poorest countries.

Cold Calling Employers

Georg Bauer, a product index of goods and sixteenth

2011 years of the international chemical

Giorgio Nebbia nebbia@quipo.it

"Critics argue that the mining and metallurgical damage the trees and fields, which also you get food and timber, and destroy the birds provide meat quality and cheer the soul with their singing. "This phrase, which appears from one of many ongoing debates on the effects of industry on the environment, but was written almost half a millennium ago by Georg Bauer, known as Agricola, which is celebrating the anniversary of the birth cinquecentesino.

Agricola politely reply to the criticism by saying that the negative environmental effects are certainly there, but that the mining activities offer endless materials useful to humans, gold and silver alum, sulfur, metals essential for the progress of iron, copper, zinc, mercury, antimony, and so on. The debate è contenuto nella principale opera di Agricola, il trattato in dodici libri "De re metallica", cioè sull'arte e la tecnica dell'estrazione dei minerali e della produzione dei metalli.

Agricola fu uno straordinario personaggio, figlio di un'epoca di transizione, all'alba della primissima rivoluzioine industriale, di quella che Lewis Mumford ha chiamato l'"era paleotecnica".

Agricola era nato nel 1494 a Glauchau in Sassonia (Germania) e aveva seguito, come si usava in quel tempo, studi classici e letterari nelle Università di Lipsia, Bologna, e Padova, per laurearsi poi in medicina nell'Università di Ferrara. Dal 1527 al 1533 ricoprì l'ufficio di medico a Joachimsthal (oggi Jachymov), in Bohemia (now Czech Republic) and, from 1534 until his death in 1555, was a doctor and then mayor of Chemnitz, in neighboring Saxony (Germany).

Although he wrote several works on medicine, on weights and measures, history and theology --- defended the Catholic faith from the attacks of the Protestant Reformation --- his main book is the great treatise on mining, first noted, appeared after his death in 1556. Living in Europe's biggest mining region of the time, in the heart of the Ore Mountains (Erzgebirge), was able to observe, study and report on all phases of mining and metallurgical industries.

"De re metallica" is beautiful work and was a huge success and was translated from Latin into many languages, including Italian, already in 1563, and has preserved over the centuries its freshness and charm enough to deserve, in 1912, a translation in modern English by the spouses and Louise Herbert Hoover, both mining engineers. Herbert Hoover later became president of the United States from 1929 to 1932: it was the president of the Great Depression, and was the predecessor of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, elected president in 1933. Hoover administration was responsible for the construction of one of the largest dams in the world, on the Colorado River, which bears his name. I do not think it's a case that the work of Agricola, typical of a period of revolution and industrial innovation, as were the early decades of the 1500s, has attracted a man like Hoover, who lived, in turn, the other major phase of modern industrial-technological revolution of the early 1900s.

Agricola describes not only facts and techniques and equipment, with meticulous precision and with a series of illustrations are very beautiful and interesting even today, a strong humanistic culture he compares the knowledge of his time with those of Greek and Latin classics. Agricola cites a large number of minerals, many shown for the first time, and explains the processes of transformation of minerals into metals, some of which still apply today.

The work on the art mining begins by explaining the rationale for studying the geology, mineralogy and metallurgy, and the qualities that an entrepreneur must have to do its job well. Meanwhile requires good observation skills to recognize the world around the veins of useful minerals, trade, mines and furnaces must be located near a forest and a river, the forest provides wood for the construction of wells and use as a source power for the furnaces and the water has carried away the debris of the crushing of minerals, even if the farm does not fail to detect damage resulting pollution.

Mining activity must be monitored by special officials who should receive a good education and culture geological and mining. Officials must be able to perform analysis on the mineral and agricultural cites the various methods used. The concentration of mercury in distilled and mineral is measured by weighing the mercury recovered, the gold concentration is measured by mixing the gold with lead impurity in a special pot called gold leaf lead and other metals are oxidized and are absorbed by land of the melting pot: still a little button of pure gold which is then weighed. The process of cups is still used today.

The transformation of minerals into metals requires furnaces where the ore is added with land fluxes and charcoal: search and retrieve the metal molten. Some of the drawings illustrate well the principle of operation and in some cases followed, with minor variations, even today. Agricola explains well that certain minerals, before being processed in the ovens, must be "roasted", that is heated to transform, for example, sulfides in metal oxides, an operation that generates harmful fumes and irritating. Metallurgical activities must therefore be carried out away from the city.

Some metals should be treated with concentrated acids and Agricola describes the process of manufacture of nitric acid by reaction of potassium nitrate with sulfuric acid. Moreover, the nitric acid is still important because it "dissolves" all metals except gold. The ninth and tenth, of the twelve books of which 'made the work "De re metallica", are dedicated to their precious metals: gold and silver.

The twelfth and final book explains the processes of the nascent chemical industry: it is described the preparation of the salt by evaporating in the sun or by the distillation of sea water, saltpetre, alum, sulfuric acid, sulfur and Glass, whose farm also illustrates the processes of swelling that had probably seen at Murano, near Venice
, during his stay in Italy.

A reading with the current knowledge, the work of Agricola Agricola shows that some substances confused and had no clear ideas on the actual composition of some minerals. With his work, however, we move from vision to
alchemical materials chemistry and engineering modern vision.

Agricola mentions for the first time, and with some skepticism, the use of the fork by dowsers to search for water and special metals.

Agricola soon, as we mentioned at the beginning, attention to pollution due to mining activities: the drawings illustrating his works clearly show the kilns where the smoke out you can imagine and corrosive acids. Agricola speaks with expertise in medicine, the harsh conditions under which the work is performed and the miners' diseases and intoxications in which they are exposed. Unlike Greeks and Romans, who used slave labor in the mines, at the time of Agricola's work in the mines is done by free men, workers and as entrepreneurs, whose health is endangered by the stench and fumes, but also by spirits elfs (radon emanation?) to the miners who make mischief and cause strange visions.

is to smile to think that a child of the Renaissance, a man so close to us, could have believed in these naive, but then there is not so to smile when you think that some "intellectuals" of our time believe even the esoteric practices and to spiritualism, perhaps things would smile if he could see us Agricola. A text


largest is here

Low Pulse Rate Meaning

Chemical cousins \u200b\u200bor sisters? Where will all the oil

2011: International Year of Chemistry

In: P. Riani (ed.), "Methodological and epistemological foundations, history and chemistry education. Massa-Carrara 2003-2004 ", Pisa, Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, 2005, p. 218-242

Giorgio Nebbia

What we are looking for the family are the product category and chemistry, two disciplines, but I would say, two ways of seeing the world, though quite Related expulsion has become more visible in the academic world and over time.

Since ancient times beings humans have felt the need to meet their needs --- food, water, the body's defense against the cold, housing, movement --- with material objects from nature. These were plants or animals, textiles, stones, salt derived from sea gradually that human societies are organized and that the needs have increased, the extraction and processing of bodies of nature have been made increasingly refined. On the other hand each person could not know everything about the world of things, but told each other what he knew and learned from other knowledge about the nature, perhaps it was this continuous exchange that has characterized the evolution of human beings towards always forms more similar to those we know today.

In large part the knowledge regarding the properties of bodies of nature. At the same time an increasing number of people had to procure certain items or materials from other people or other places and was born a society based on trade. --- First trade based on barter food for salt, hides and skins in exchange for slaves, etc. --- then mediated by a new institution, the money. Any company of which we received evidence known registered trade matters in exchange for money or material, or inventories of material goods that a person or a community owned.

science and philosophy were concerned with many other important things --- the existence of a deity, the motion of the planets, the rights of people --- but the world has always gone forward with progress and with the spread of knowledge objects and their trade. For simplicity I will call "goods" are physical goods, materials, drawn from nature and processed into useful objects with human labor, ignoring the manner in which they were exchanged. I will call

merceologia knowledge of material bodies, physical, from nature, processed and used by humans. Such knowledge could be sought and perfected for purposes of curiosity, for practical purposes, for purposes of exchange and enrichment, could be given to essential goods like food or materials to build a house, or could be directed to objects of all unnecessary or frivolous, such as perfumes or drugs or precious stones or fabrics or leather luxury spoke a language not of necessity but of prestige or pleasure, were signs of power and wealth.

The fact is that, in ancient times, knowledge of practical and useful things can be found in all organized societies. Here I will avoid any opinion on the degree of "civilization" of the communities that we will meet. The works of scientific, geographic, legal and medical professions are also obliged to use sources of knowledge and merchandise for the disease are cured with herbs or roots, because the litigation is to a large parte a scambi merceologici.

Si potrebbe fare una utile ricerca per trovare nelle fonti storiche le conoscenze del tempo in cui sono state scritte. Ci sono alcuni testi che rappresentano per il merceologo una fonte di continue sorprese: la "storia naturale" di Plinio si può considerare una vera e propria enciclopedia merceologica; la "Materia medica" di Dioscoride è una raccolta delle conoscenze di piante e animali che sono stati riconosciuti utili a curare malattie: praticamente di tutti i corpi offerti dalla natura.

Oggetti materiali sono stati usati nei riti religiosi come offerte alle divinità, come ornamenti dei sacerdoti; ce ne sono innumerevoli prove nella Bibbia e nei relativi commenti, soprattutto nella cultura ebraica; what types of incense were suitable for the ceremonies, what kind of myrrh were suitable for the preservation of corpses, and so on.

Even at this early stage comes an activity of interest, even if neglected in serious studies: that of forgery and fraud in the exchange of goods. The transport of goods in remote areas was difficult and expensive, and soon discovered that someone could earn more by mixing with other goods valued less valuable and that an inexperienced buyer could be easily deceived.

fraud could be revealed by empirical tests, but sometimes requires more sophisticated methods. He always mentions the case of Archimedes, which reveals the deception goldsmith of his host that Hieron had made with base metals that would be a crown of gold, Archimedes revealed the deception by measuring the specific gravity of the crown with that of an equivalent mass of pure gold, discovering, as they say, one of fundamental principles of physics.

News on forgery and fraud can be found in Pliny, Dioscorides, in the Bible and probably in many other ancient texts that should be explored in search of one of the oldest evidence of criminal activity.

A new wave of merchandise you have knowledge of the world with the spread of culture and Islamic religion which discouraged commercial activity, but regulates the morality in their movement from the Atlantic coast of Africa to the islands of the Pacific Ocean, from Europe to Central Africa, since the Mecca in Saudi as a proper religious point of attraction, the "faithful" knew a greater number of items and had increasing opportunities for trade and had to adjust the quality of what they bought.

Fraud Islam was considered a form of sin and the state then had its offices and officials involved in the prevention of fraud, officials used physical methods --- the comparison between specific gravity --- but also of the wise that were already "chemical" to distinguish the genuine from those sophisticated goods. Fortunately we have received numerous treatises and manuals that allow you to take a look at this world where he meets a chemical product sector is still in its infancy.

But around the sixteenth century that the knowledge commodity become more sophisticated and that a growing number of scientists and engineers seeking to understand how the nature of the materials are processed and according to which "laws" that are beginning to be more "chemical". The mass of information and chemical commodity increases rapidly from year to year, mainly in the field of metallurgy, is under pressure to obtain the most suitable techniques for metal armor, guns, swords, is under pressure to obtain precious metals can avoid complicated operations extraction. metal genuine.

The conquest of the "Americas" He attracted to Europe not only the traditional goods of the distant Indies, discoveries now in the new lands, but also entirely new market, such as potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, and a great mass of precious metals. E 'from the sixteenth century onwards that will refine the understanding of chemistry, primarily for merchandise to improve the processes of transformation of natural products and to foil the adulteration and fraud.

Until the seventeenth century did not include the word chemistry in the modern sense, and not even the word commodity economics as a scientific discipline, even if the first two centuries saw the new science of chemistry to solve practical problems involved, merchandise, to understand how you can improve processi di produzione delle merci.

Nel corso del Settecento l'interesse degli intellettuali è rivolto alla comprensione dei processi di trasformazione delle materie naturali in merci: il più importante esempio è offerto dall'"Enciclopedia" che intende parlare di arti e mestieri, cioè di processi di produzione e trasformazione delle materie naturali e delle merci. L'opera a cui si attribuisce la spinta per le trasformazioni culturali più importanti della società e la nascita della società moderna e democratica è un'opera tecnico-merceologica.

Nel Settecento si moltiplicano i dizionari e le enciclopedie merceologiche, comincia a comparire, negli scritti tedeschi, la parola Warenkunde, o scienza things, goods, product category, in short, the same word appears for the first time in the title of a book written by the economist, intellectual, and the German scholar Johann Beckmann (1739-1811) in 1793.

It 's interesting to note that the early writers were economists and historians of goods and non-chemical and chemical product sector and hence seem to walk on two adjoining floors shortly, although the chemicals continue to work on products of commerce and trade sectors have an increasing need for chemical knowledge and tools to describe and understand the goods and to uncover fraud.

Equally curious is the fact that they get taught in high school or university, the chemistry is carried between the disciplines, "natural" product category, and ends between the teachings of the cheapest product category appears as teaching in European business schools --- Germany, Austria, Italy --- Russia also often taught by chemists. Equally curious is the fact that the product category does not appear, even as his own name, in French and Anglo-Saxon, so that should be used to talk to paraphrase --- commodity science, science des merchandises --- that does not do justice to the cultural content of product category, the more so in English commodities, goods and merchandises have different meanings, while coming all three words in the Italian term "goods", whether it be oil, sugar, oilseeds, useful objects, gasoline, tomato sauce or shoes.

While it is easy to recognize the history, all uphill, chemical disciplines in schools and universities, the history of trade sectors between the disciplines of economics has had ups and happy events.

The product category is taught in the first school of commerce in Antwerp in 1852, and in Paris in 1861. Antwerp was taught natural history of commercial and trade sectors and there was a chemical laboratory and a museum merchandise. In Paris, courses were taught applied chemistry, applied physics, materials and commercial products, industrial mechanics.

begin to appear the first books related to commodity interest. Prof. Hassaké Karl (1861-1929) from 1886 taught commercial product category in the Academy of Vienna, where he founded a center for the collection and exchange of geo-material commodity. It 's interesting to note the plots of the product category with geography, as well as chemistry. Hassaké passed in 1896 to teach in the Academy of Graz, where he became commercial director in 1907. Various product categories of treaties Hassaké were translated into Italian and became standard texts from the early years of the twentieth century. Still appear in the nineteenth century the first treatises on product category and you have the creation of the first chairs of this discipline in Russia.

Besides all essays in economics from the late eighteenth century onwards, cominciano con un capitolo intitolato "Le merci"; è così anche per "Il Capitale" di Kal Marx (1818-1883) che fin dall'edizione del primo libro del 1867, proprio nel primo capitolo parla della merceologia sottolineando che le merci hanno un valore d'uso e un valore di scambio. Del valore d'uso, scrive Marx, si occupa "ein eigener Disziplin, der Warenkunde", la merceologia, appunto, del valore di scambio si occupa lui stesso nella lunga critica dell'economia e del valore nella società capitalistica.

Il primo ingresso della merceologia in Italia come materia di insegnamento si ebbe nelle scuole medie superiori ad opera di Arnaudon, professore presso l'Istituto Tecnico di Torino. Egli ottenne che nel 1869 la merceologia venisse introdotta come materia obbligatoria nei programmi degli Istituti tecnici, ma la mancanza di musei merceologici e di laboratori chimici fece sì che l'insegnamento scadesse e che la materia fosse eliminata dai programmi delle scuole medie; soltanto con la fine dell'Ottocento la disciplina è stata di nuovo introdotto negli Istituti tecnici e nelle Scuole commerciali.

Nel frattempo alle prime Scuole superiori di commercio straniere seguirono, nella seconda metà dell'Ottocento, varie simili scuole in Italia. La Scuola superiore di commercio di Venezia fu fondata nel 1868, quella di Genova nel 1884, quella di Bari nel 1886. Le scuole superiori di commercio si proponevano di preparare degli operatori economici e commerciali in grado di affrontare the society of the time is the time when in Italy, with several decades of lagging behind countries foreign born workers and the capitalist society and have taken the character of improvisation and adventure.

No wonder, then, that the rules of "practice" had a leading role in the natural knowledge necessary to recognize the goods, to uncover fraud, responding to the needs of the new merchant class. In these early schools of commerce product category was taught for two or three years, mostly inspired by the German model, had essentially instrumental and descriptive, of each commodity were described aspects of botanical and mineralogical and were messe in rilievo le proprietà atte alla classificazione a fini doganali, le falsificazioni e frodi. Spesso le cattedre erano dotate di laboratori chimici che talvolta venivano messi a disposizione degli operatori economici per controlli e analisi.

Nel 1885 il prof. G. Novi scrisse a Napoli un lungo saggio che raccomanda l'istituzione di una scuola superiore per lo studio dei prodotti commerciali e delle risorse naturali destinata ad insegnare ad una nuova classe di operatori economici e di commercianti come far fronte ad un mondo in continua evoluzione. Novi suggeriva anche l'istituzione di un museo merceologico sotto la responsabilità di un professore di merceologia, coadiuvato da professori di geografia, storia ed economia dei prodotti di commercio.

However, throughout the nineteenth century, in countries where it was practiced and taught, the Commodity has not deviated from the original descriptive approach, a kind of botany, zoology and mineralogy of the goods. The museums were collections of commodity samples of commercial products, mainly of natural origin, the workshops are the characteristics of their goods and reveal fraud through the methods available from chemistry and physics.

In Italy, for example, the Central Laboratory and peripheral administration of Customs have been important centers of product research and many of their officials --- from the first Villavecchia Director Vittorio (1859-1937) del Laboratorio centrale di Roma --- sono poi passati a insegnare Merceologia nelle Università.

Una importante svolta negli studi economici si è avuta all'inizio del Novecento quando il termine "economico" si è andato ad affiancare a quello "commerciale" per caratterizzare gli studi superiori in Italia. Alle materie pratiche, fra cui dominava la merceologia, si sono affiancate quelle teoriche economiche; venivano fondate in questo periodo la Libera Università commerciale Luigi Bocconi di Milano nel 1902, e le Scuole superiori di commercio di Torino (1905), di Roma (1906), Palermo (1918), Catania (1919), Napoli (1920), Trieste (1923, ma preesistente come scuola con ordinamento speciale fin dal periodo austroungarico), Firenze (1926) Bologna (1929), eccetera.

Col prevalere delle discipline economiche e aziendalistiche l'insegnamento della merceologia veniva ridotto da biennale ad annuale. A mano a mano che le Scuole superiori di commercio, agli inizi del XX secolo, si sono trasformate in Facoltà universitarie economiche, alla merceologia sono stati lasciati spazi sempre più ristretti e la disciplina è stata spesso considerata marginale nei nuovi indirizzi di studio. La durata dell’insegnamento diminuì da tre, a due, a un solo anno di corso, proprio in un periodo in cui la merceologia era (sarebbe stata) destinata ad assumere nuova crescente importanza, di fronte alla grande rivoluzione merceologica del XX secolo: l'invenzione dei processi di fabbricazione dei concimi per via artificiale dalla calce e dal carbone (calciocianammide); con la sintesi dell'ammoniaca e la produzione dei suoi derivati partendo dall'idrogeno dell'acqua e dall'ossigeno dell'aria; con l'invenzione delle prime fibre tessili artificiali (cellulosa modificata) e poi sintetiche, e dei primi tipi di gomma sintetica; con i nuovi metalli; con i nuovi carburanti derivati dal petrolio, eccetera.

A differenza delle altre discipline che si sono adeguate alle nuove esigenze e ai nuovi tempi, la merceologia restava legata alla sua impostazione originale; questo era dovuti anche al fatto che le merceologia dell'epoca era dominata da una figura di grande rilievo e prestigio, quella già ricordata Vittorio Villavecchia which should, inter alia, a celebrated "Dictionary of marketable goods" whose first edition dates back to 1896 and the last, in four volumes in 1929-1932. Villavecchia held, as has been mentioned for several decades at the same time the product category of professorship at the University of Rome and the direction of the Central Customs Laboratory equipment --- and he was bound and tied his students and successors to the tradition --- typically described as if the product category had as its main purpose is to teach to solve problems of classification of goods.

The second turning point in economic studies took place between the first and second World War, the Great Depression of the thirties of the twentieth century portò gli studiosi di problemi economici a occuparsi prevalentemente degli aspetti monetari e finanziari e si fece più profonda la crisi della merceologia, ormai ridotta comunque nelle università italiane ad insegnamento annuale ed ebbe spazi sempre più ristretti nelle Facoltà di Economia e Commercio, secondo la nuova denominazione assunta, a partire dal 1935, dalle antiche Scuole superiori di commercio.

La merceologia rimase, fino alla recente riforma, come insegnamento negli Istituti tecnici commerciali, triennale, con laboratori chimici, negli Istituti ad "indirizzo mercantile", sempre di meno, e come materia annuale negli Istituti a indirizzo "amministrativo".

La vera grande svolta negli studi merceologici But he had after the Second World War to the goods resulting from natural products, or through limited processing of natural products, we are facing in increasing numbers, goods artificial or even entirely new, profound changes produced by natural or chemical properties of natural resources.

The product category could not be satisfied with the description of natural products and goods produced from them, but he had to approach the study of manufacturing, the characteristics and properties of new materials and their commercial value. The search for the "value" of new goods requires consideration and knowledge of the entire production cycle of processing of raw materials in intermediate products and in many commercial products.

refined petroleum are formed, for example, fractions of a "virgin naphtha" which are then processed industrially by cracking in several other substances, some of them for the production of olefins (raw materials for plastics), other suitable for the production of synthetic rubber, and others with solvent properties or used as raw material for detergents, etc.. In addition to oil commodity --- --- even these many natural materials are intermediate "goods" are goods such as plastics, synthetic detergents, solvents, each of which goods requires new techniques of analysis and investigation.

With the increase in the number of goods also increased the complexity of the products under study. A product of natural rubber was in the late nineteenth century, a commodity relatively "simple", a tire rubber is a commodity today's "complex" consists of several types of natural and synthetic rubber mixed together, from additives to materials reinforcement, and so on.

E 'thus became increasingly difficult to present to the students or the general public a comprehensive view of science of goods, merchandise or equipping of laboratories. Teaching it was necessary for the most part limited to handle the processing of certain raw materials in some simple intermediate goods, excluding the most of goods "complex" that reach and affect the trader and the consumer.

Most university courses in product category, for example, is forced to deal with, steel, minerals, processes that leave and come to some articles of or intermediate steel processors, ignoring entirely the study or description of sheets of tin, the bodywork of cars, pans, and furniture, all goods which are also "complex" consisting of many different parts, of great importance.

Until the late sixties of the twentieth century teachers were mainly chemical product sector, as well as chemicals were largely the docenti di merceologia nelle scuole secondarie superiori. In queste ultime i chimici hanno trovato sempre meno gratificazione, con corsi di dimensioni ridotte con "libri di testo" spesso scadenti e superati, e molti docenti hanno cercato di migrare verso insegnamenti di chimica in Istituti in cui avere maggiori soddisfazioni culturali.

In molti Istituti tecnici sono scomparsi i laboratori chimici, costosi e poco apprezzati dai presidi, e a poco a poco sono anche diminuiti i docenti di educazione chimica, sostituiti nell'insegnamento da laureati in scienze naturali che di chimica e merceologia sapevano ben poco. Non solo: nei corsi di laurea in chimica non è quasi mai stata insegnata merceologia per cui i chimici che hanno insegnato merceologia, negli Technical colleges or universities have had to learn on their own account, sometimes good, sometimes bad, as much or little of the market which had to teach.

At the same time the space of marketable goods in the Faculty of Economic Studies has always been limited, with many professors of the Faculty the product category was "chemistry", was "too chemical" for students and chemical research laboratories were unnecessary expenditure away from other use more relevant to economic studies.

the point that since 1970 has been increasingly difficult to find graduates in chemistry who had desire to address the commercial and academic career in teaching has been entrusted to an increasing number of graduate in economics of commodities that they knew what little they had learned at university and who lacked the cultural basis, which necessarily are the chemical and natural, essential to teach marketable goods.

The latest blow to the final divorce between the chemical and trade sectors has taken place with the reform of high school in 1996 and with the total elimination of the teaching of product category from the technical colleges reformed trade and segregation of product category in a few vocational schools or in addresses few of the technical colleges for women. Ironically, even the cousins \u200b\u200bor sister disappeared as chemical name, relegated to a dubious science of the matter "with programs that also should have contained" technical " e merceologico. Un gran pasticcio in questa gran moda di cambiare nomi consolidati con altri che non si sa che cosa significhino esattamente.

Eppure si stanno realizzando le condizioni culturali e tecnico-scientifiche che mostrano che la stretta integrazione fra discipline chimiche e merceologiche sarebbe essenziale per risolvere molti dei problemi della società contemporanea..

I segni della svolta, per chi li avesse voluti intendere, c'erano già fin dagli anni cinquanta del Novecento quando il prof. Walter Ciusa (1906-1990) dell'Università di Bologna ha suggerito che il vero ruolo della merceologia consisteva nello studio e nell'analisi dei cicli produttivi con cui le materie prime vengono trasformate in materie intermedie e nelle merci finali, dei rendimenti di trasformazione, della destinazione dei vari prodotti.

A titolo di esempio lo studio tradizionale della merce "cereali" consisteva nell'esaminare i vari tipi di frumento, il processo di macinazione, la qualità degli sfarinati e delle merci finali derivate: pane e pasta alimentare. L'analisi dell'intero ciclo produttivo mette in evidenza l'intero ciclo di formazione dei vegetali, il bilancio fisico e chimico di materia richiesta per la coltivazione, e poi i caratteri e le utilizzazioni dei sottoprodotti e co-prodotti della trasformazione dei cereali: i vari tipi di amido e derivati, materie prime per molte merci che vanno dalle colle, all'alcol etilico impiegato come carburante in miscela con la benzina. Besides starch obtained protein concentrates for use as feed or as raw materials for plastics.

The reasoning can easily be extended with the analysis of several cycles of economic interest, minerals, steel and aluminum, from oil to all derivatives and the first mention of the fate of each of them in the great movement of matter through the economy of each country.

From 1964 began to be established independent of Chairs of "Technology of the production cycle" or "production processes". The study of processes of production and use of goods made it possible to tackle some interesting problems. For example, for each production process (should be) analyzed the "budget" or accounting in physical units of mass and energy. Various production processes are as compared based on the amount of matter and energy that you get the same unit of the same item, or different goods (eg.: textiles, detergents, adhesives) can perform the same functions.

It 'clear that this path may be made only on the basis of accurate chemical knowledge, the only science that deals with materials budgets, which represents a kind of "accounting" or accounting processes and nature. And yet in the teaching of chemistry has increased the hassle for the character material and useful process and has increased the distance between product category and chemistry, just as increased opportunities to meet and merge.

Analysis of material balance of processes and production cycles, the transformation of nature, allows the development of the scale of "values" regardless of cost or the price of traditional monetary economics considered. "That" more, for example, a product that performs the same function with lower power consumption or reduced consumption of oil or other commodities. In a sense, is recovered so that the concept of "use value" that Marx in "Capital" was recognized as the end of the investigation of the product category.

Considerations There have been similar proposals to link the cash price of food with their "content" of the energy value of protein, with which you can determine which foods provide energy and protein to a minimum cash price.

The importance of the new approach to product category is even greater given the increasing attention to environmental problems. The pollution of air, water or soil, are mainly due to the entry in those receiving natural bodies, by-products or waste production and use of goods. To know the adverse effects of these wastes on the environment and to address the remedies (purification, recycling, etc.), you must have information details on the amount of matter and energy together, the "cross" each production cycle.

The product category, as the science of items for trade, human use, mainly deals with the quantity of matter and energy that leads to unity of weight of the goods in question, however, is easy to extend the analysis also including the quantity and composition of both the materials that you "buy" from nature without paying any money price, either by-products which are not "sold" for money to anyone and are placed back at no cost to the environment.

properly extending the concept of "goods" to everything that is exchanged, regardless of whether it is exchanged through the intermediary of money, we can say that the product category (it should) also take up the trading of "goods" or goods not associated with the physical exchange of money and may produce physical records, natural , in trade and therefore the overall movement of matter and energy from nature, the processes of production and consumption, until their return to nature as a second-hand goods, scrap, waste, waste of movement, ie, nature --- --- goods nature.

For example in steel-making we certainly need to iron ore, coal or oil, and limestone, four goods that the producer buys in exchange for money. But the operation of the blast furnace (the equipment that turns iron ore into cast iron) and the operation of the "converter" (the device that turns iron into steel) are only possible if the system "buy", though also not paying any price for it, the oxygen from the atmosphere. In the process also form by-products and waste solids, liquids and gases that are released into the surrounding worsening quality.

More generally, the slag and waste of all activities of production and consumption are substances consisting of matter and potentially also energy carriers. They may be true "negative goods" as a source of corruption of foreign recipients naturali in cui vengono gettate, fonti, cioè, di inquinamento. Oppure una parte delle scorie e dei rifiuti può essere ricuperata e può diventare "materia seconda" con cui fabbricare nuove merci, uguali o praticamente uguali a quelle che si ottengono con le "materie prime" tradizionali.

Non a caso ormai nel parlare comune --- e anche in alcune disposizioni legislative --- si parla di qualità o di composizione "merceologica" dei rifiuti. I processi di riciclo, cioè di trasformazione della carta usata in carta nuova, del vetro usato o degli imballaggi di ferro o di alluminio in nuova carta, vetro, ferro, alluminio, sono dei veri processi produttivi come quelli che partono dal legno o dalla sabbia o dai minerali.

But I repeat once again, no "evaluation", that expression of the "value" of a product or process can be done without adequate knowledge of the chemical materials, all of them, both with and without monetary value, but all have valuable physical, material.

The product category has an important role in informing and educating consumers. In homes and everyday life come several goods, each with a name and characteristics established by laws, these laws for some years now, are generally the same for all EU countries.

With the growth of the world of products becomes increasingly difficult for the merchant know what sells, the more so for the untrained consumer becomes increasingly difficult to understand and "read" the labels of the objects found in stores. In a sense we can say that the goods "talk" with their labels, but the consumer is becoming increasingly difficult to understand the message it receives.

Hence the importance of informing and educating the consumer commodity, which are then the entire population of a country. With the reform of 1977 in lower secondary school was introduced to the teaching of "Technical Education", mandatory three-year, which provided a large part in its programs of information on items and goods with which the student is and will be contact. Such education would help citizens better understand and distinguish among the many advertisements that reach through the mass media.

Unfortunately, although a growing number of large circulation magazines and even popular encyclopedia dealing with feeding problems, textiles, detergents, cosmetics, etc., just missing a magazine dedicated to the dissemination in the field of goods (the "Magazine of the product sector" scientific in nature and limited edition) and there is no "internet merchandise (except for a makeover, very technical, published by Hoepli in seven volumes, appeared in the years 1971-1977, the" Dictionary of the product sector ", by V. Villavecchia, whose fifth and last edition dates back to the thirties of the twentieth century).

For some years now it has also developed a line of interest in the social aspects of production operations and use of goods, some universities have been established in the teaching of "social technology" (a term used with A second meaning is completely different, use of technical sociological survey). Within studies, commodity, the term "social technology" has been used as used in 1934 by Lewis Mumford (1895-1990) in the book: "Technology and Culture", ie as a study of the social processes of production and consumption of goods and related innovazioni, ma poi anche questo termine è stato abbandonato nelle Università italiane.

Rientra in questa linea l'esame degli effetti ambientali, già ricordati, dell'irrazionale smaltimento dei rifiuti, degli effetti del pericolo di esaurimento delle riserve di risorse naturali (petrolio, carbone, acqua, foreste, animali), rinnovabili o non rinnovabili, in seguito all'eccessiva produzione delle merci, dei rapporti fra disponibilità di alimenti e popolazione, eccetera.

La merceologia, quando è stata insegnata e studiata soprattutto nelle Scuole secondarie e nelle Facoltà di carattere economico e commerciale, è strettamente legata a, e fornisce la base per, altre discipline come la economic geography and economic history itself, the technical and commercial and industrial market research, the applied analytical chemistry, industrial chemistry and also some fields of engineering sciences. Although now virtually expelled from secondary schools and endangered in the universities, science merchandise would still have many things to study and teach.

energy problems require a description and experimental evaluation of the main characters of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, natural gas, and their derivatives. This part comprises the processes of extraction, transport and related environmental problems, and the destination of the various products in different areas of human activity: energy for industry and steel, transport, electricity, heating and environmental effects of the different sectors.

The fossil fuels are scarce and non-renewable, as shown in an investigation of their known reserves. It 's always more important to use them wisely and to use renewable energy sources such as solar, wind and wave, the potential energy of water in motion. The freight derivatives are obtained low-temperature heat from the Sun or the mechanical energy and electricity from hydraulic machines or photovoltaic systems. Among the sources of energy including nuclear energy and should be a debate on its limits sectors.

In the study of commodity metals and their production processes, beside the main metals such as iron, aluminum, copper, etc., take on increasing importance metals that perform special functions with the new techniques, the germanium and silicon used in semiconductors, titanium and rare earths, precious metals --- gold, silver, platinum, palladium, rhodium --- whose technical uses, particularly in the electrical and electronics and catalysts, such as excess amount uses in the ornaments.

The traditional building materials including lime, cement, ceramics, but also new materials such as asbestos cement products, insulation materials. The only problem of ceramics involves complex issues of quality, international trade and pollution.

An important chapter of the studies concerns the commodity chemical industry, including rapidly changing raw materials, intermediate products and final. From a few basic materials --- oil, natural gas, nitrogen, air, sulfur, limestone --- the many important goods are manufactured in the chemical industry "primary", later transformed into the intermediate "secondary chemistry" to the products coming into our homes as artificial and synthetic fibers, detergents, cosmetics, home furnishings, furniture, packaging, and so on.

While previous issues include goods produced by the "exploitation" di risorse naturali non rinnovabili, minerali e rocce e materiali fossili le cui riserve sono più o meno vaste, un grande capitolo della ricerca merceologica riguarda le merci ottenute dalla trasformazione delle materie del regno vegetale e animale, cioè basate su materie rinnovabili dipendenti dal ciclo naturale del carbonio.

Fra i vegetali un posto primario occupano i cereali di cui la merceologia studia e analizza i caratteri, la provenienza, i derivati destinati all'alimentazione, umana e degli animali da allevamento, ma anche ad usi industriali, rivolgendo la propria attenzione anche alle disuguaglianze nella disponibilità di alimenti nelle varie parti del mondo.

I prodotti forestali alimentano un importante commercio internazionale e le industrie della carta, dei pannelli e dei mobili; i danni dell'eccessivo sfruttamento delle risorse forestali, che si rinnovano soltanto lentamente, possono essere ridotti con la produzione di carta nuova dalla carta straccia o ricorrendo a materiali cellulosici a rapida crescita.

Nell'analisi dei prodotti di origine vegetale rientrano importanti casi di materie industriali "naturali" per esempio le fibre tessili e la gomma, che subiscono la concorrenza dei corrispondenti prodotti sintetici. L'evoluzione di tale concorrenza appare meglio se si esaminano comparativamente le somiglianze e le diversità dei caratteri merceologici dei prodotti naturali e sintetici.

I prodotti alimentari vegetali stanno alla base, a loro volta, della "produzione" di alimenti di origine animale; l'allevamento del bestiame presuppone la disponibilità di pascoli o di mangimi e fornisce alimenti carnei, ma anche prodotti industriali, come i pellami (la materia prima per l'industria del cuoio, delle pelli, delle scarpe, ecc.) e vari sottoprodotti della macellazione.

Infine un importante capitolo riguarda la "merce" acqua, considerata generalmente un bene disponibile in quantità illimitata, ma che si rivela, in molte zone, scarsa, soprattutto se ci si riferisce alla disponibilità di acqua potabile di buona qualità igienica e "merceologica". L'acqua dissalata, ormai prodotta su larga scala nel mondo, è una vera e propria merce "fabbricata" from the sea with processes that eliminate the salt and fresh water to recover.

European economic integration requires that the goods produced in one country may be freely sold in other EU countries, so more and more laws and rules that establish or modify the quality, characteristics, limitations Analytical goods. Commodity knowledge are therefore even more essential in commercial operations, at a time when, ironically, the discipline is disappearing from the courses of instruction.

A field of growing interest is, finally, the story of goods and technical processes of production, they can teach us many useful suggestions to avoid errors in the choice of goods.

The resolution of many problems --- characterization business, fight fraud, etc. --- on the areas listed above requires experimental research on the goods based on the use of chemical and physical methods of investigation. It 'hard to believe that a research and product analysis to be able to resolve any analytical problem, so you typically have university labs to product category, each specializing in particular areas. Commodity research laboratories experimental or control exist, under various names, in public administration, in many industries and large commercial distribution companies.

part of the public administration of research and commodity controls are conducted in the laboratories of the Ministry of Health (or now called), or of public health facilities for goods (foods, cosmetics, etc..) whose use can be harmful to health, the Ministry of 'agriculture (or as now known) for the prevention of fraud on agricultural products, fertilizers, seeds, etc.., the Ministry of Industry (or as now known) for controls on textile fibers, paper, metals, etc. .; by the Ministry of Finance (or as now known) for controls on goods and import or export of items subject to tax.

So far I have talked about the various product categories and its troubles, public misunderstanding to this discipline and how it needs to do its job well, support and tools of chemistry. But the chemistry, especially in the university and the public, she has her troubles. Speaking of chemistry is present as a sister company in the past stormy .. "Chemistry" is a word displeasing to many ears, especially poorly informed, for various reasons, apparently conflicting.

The first is the way the mainstream media talk about things in which the chemical is involved, there lacked nothing but attacks with "chemical weapons" in addition to accidents "chemical" reckless use the "chemistry" in agriculture, etc., to emphasize anything unpleasant associated with the adjective "chemical". There is no doubt that industrial accidents, poisoning of workers in factories, pollution of the environment often occur in chemical plants or handling chemical products and by chemicals. There is no doubt that many factories producing dangerous chemicals, sometimes useless, sometimes obscene as agents of war, those from poison gas and tear gas to incapacitate.

There is no doubt that the discovery of fraud, including toxic substances in water and food, of herbicides in wells are the result of misuse and violent of chemicals and a large popular movement that rightly calls for more strict regulations in the production, circulation and use of chemicals for industrial and commercial applications.

The second reason lies in the chemistry of the dubious manner in which the corporation of chemical producers react to the criticisms of those who are summarily dismissed as "green" or "green." The answer put in circulation by evil orchestrated media campaigns is saccharine and unconvincing and elicits a rejection reaction in public opinion. Not enough to mobilize large companies advertising and public relations to be credible and convincing when presenting the image that the chemistry is by definition good and beneficial for mankind, and therefore the manufacturers of chemicals must be valued and praised as those who spread the good inherent in the chemical industry.

Again the excessive zeal of the apologists often falls into the ridiculous. There is no doubt that the substances in the blood are made up of chemical molecules --- and what else should they be? --- And that the food needed for survival, the drugs that save the lives of people, colors that decorate the fabrics, cosmetics that make nice, clean appearance, are made of chemicals. There is no doubt that chemicals are --- although it is generally handled by non-chemical --- the analysis to recognize the disease.

But it is equally true that the history of recent years is full of incidents of damage health and the environment caused by industrial chemicals and not because these substances are "chemicals" but because they were careless and incompetent producers, transporters, users. And do not serve either the "chemical" or the entrepreneurs with the hearing office made by the willing "scientists" and academics and critics who ridicule their ignorance. These defenses have the taste of things already heard: even the manufacturers of the 1800 British responded to the challenge of those who wanted them to be improved working conditions in factories, mobilizing "scientists." It 'was the famous Dr. Andrew Ure (1778-1857), chemist and production, which, full of zeal, he wrote a whole book, "The philosophy of manufactures" (a partial translation into Italian was published in the "Library economy", Second Series, volume 3, by Tipografico-editor of Turin in 1863) to demonstrate how the work in the mills and mines were beneficial to the health of children, removed from the road and its vices.

The third reason, linked to the previous two, just the good name of the chemical in the popular imagination, is the widespread ignorance of chemistry. Intelligent and educated people, who can speak with expertise in literature and music and art, "intellectuals", as they say, dare, their ignorance of the strong chemistry, often foolish to make judgments about the failures e sui vizi della "chimica".

Non c'è dubbio che la chimica si insegna poco e spesso male nelle scuole secondarie superiori --- dove pure circa 400 mila studenti ogni anno sono "costretti" a seguire un qualche corso di chimica --- sulla base di testi che talvolta (spesso) sono modesti e noiosi. Quel poco di nozioni appiccicate alla mente, talvolta senza andare al di là di poche frasi fatte, ripetute come litanie, sono il terreno ideale per fare nascere idee distorte e luoghi comuni e vere sciocchezze.

Ancora peggiore è la situazione dopo la riforma della scuola superiore del 1996, con la chimica, come si è prima accennato, privata perfino del suo nome e inclusa nella "Scienza della materia".

Non c'è perciò da meravigliarsi se i giornalisti, i parlamentari, gli amministratori, spesso persone colte e attente, straparlano quando si tratta di esprimere dei giudizi sulla chimica, sull'effetto serra, sulle marmitte catalitiche, sulle virtù di cosmetici o sui danni dell'ozono (poco conta se troposferico o stratosferico).

Si aggiunga che la situazione è scoraggiante benché in Italia esistono decine di migliaia di laureati in chimica, centinaia di professori universitari di discipline chimiche: la loro voce si sente troppo poco e quasi niente, come se ci fosse un pudore nell'intervenire e nel parlare della loro scienza. Una volta Linus Pauling (1901-1994, premio Nobel per la chimica e poi premio Nobel per la peace) wrote that we must instead learn to speak to someone other than their own tubes. The very highest Italian society of chemists, the Italian Chemical Society, with a few thousand members, mostly members of the academic world, known magazines, however, a very limited circulation, is unknown to the public as well not exist.

Unlike other national chemical societies and in particular that of America, the American Chemical Society, which publishes a weekly newspaper, the well known Chemical and Engineering News, which "pulls" more than a million copies (half of the run, record-breaking , of the Christian Family), which mobilizes its members because they speak on television local organizing national days of chemistry, chemistry Olympiad, which induces the government to print commemorative stamps of chemistry and chemists, and so on.

This situation means that in Italy there are very few journals in chemistry, with limited movement, not a really popular character and popular, which are only a few or very few popular books on chemistry, whose knowledge for the general public are handled the brief encounter in high school, with school texts.

I am reminded of the "Letters on chemistry" that Liebig (1803-1873) published serially sull'Augsburger Allgemeine Zeitung and who reached over the years, the number of fifty, gathered in various volumes, translated into all languages \u200b\u200band also in Italian, as they appeared in German, and had a great popular success. It will not hurt to remember that the 200th anniversary of the birth of Liebig was proclaimed in Germany, "Jahr der Chemie", while an important event has gone virtually unnoticed in Italy.

regarding disclosure of chemical recommend reading the recent book, "Communicating chemistry. History of textbooks in Europe Between 1789 and 1930, Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent, and Anders Lundgren, Cambridge, 1999.

Just as there is in Italy a good dictionary of trade sectors, in Italy there is not even a good dictionary or a good encyclopedia People's chemistry. And 'natural enough that even the translators of foreign newspaper articles storpino chemical names, with silicon and silicon becomes vice versa, which becomes iodine iodine, carbohydrates that become hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, which becomes carbon monoxide, and so on.

But never like this when a chemical culture is crucial for protecting the health of citizens and also to give new breath to a feeble industry. Never before at this time the chemical problems are central to the economy and progress. Just read the Official Journal of the European Communities or officials of the Italian Republic to see that more and more often there are whole files, the real volumes, full of chemical information, formulas, synonyms, proposals for unification, full of standardized analytical methods to detect the purity of the substances, to defeat the fraud, to reveal pollution. The symbol of the CAS Chemical Abstracts Service is also used in the texts of the law now goes where the number, initials and the name of the substances that enter the medicines, cosmetics, pesticides, etc., that is in production, trade and use of goods.

than ever at this time the survival of the civilian industrial countries depend on better public services, product control and environmental services that require chemical methods of inquiry practiced by chemists. With all the talk that is made of European unity, we must realize that we can be if they demonstrate a truly European public and private companies have advanced technologies and in this progress has an important role in chemistry and chemists have, just as the product category and have the product category.

Right now, we would need a degree in chemical preparations, proud of their culture and their skill and ability, knowing the role they can play in civil society, as at this time would be needed for the connoisseurs and insenanti processes of natural resource use and production of goods

With all due respect to the other natural sciences and experimental chemistry is perhaps the only one that offers the welding between the fundamental laws of matter and the application of these laws to daily life, the metabolism of food to the beauty of the colors of butterfly wings or petals of flowers, large flows of matters that are the basis of the economy.

Chemistry is the science of accounting fact of nature. The budget is a budget of chemical reactions "cheap" it, by definition, must be balanced, all that is left is to find a formula to right: the subject must always find it all. And now here we find the differences between the accounts of nature and that "economic monetary union". Even economists make the accounting of money: the money spent must be equal to those earned. But "things" materials which are described by the monetary exchange is only a small fraction of those that affect real life.

In the budget of a factory, for example, the monetary accounts based solely on matters which are bought and sold. If we think of a steel factory counting iron ore and coal, which are obtained in exchange for money, but money is not included in the accounts that you get free oxygen in the air that is used to burn coal in part by transforming it into oxide carbon that reduces oxides of iron and cast iron. The iron and steel and energy enter the economic accounting because it is bought or sold, but are formed in the reaction --- something obvious and trivial to a chemical dust --- and carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and wastes which are not included in economic accounting because they are thrown into the atmosphere or in a landfill. Except one day realize that people complain about the fumes that are "things" and materials that need to measure the quantity and chemical composition, and that we must filter and collected in order to kill or not to pollute the air or soil.

The ecological context was actually born by the attention given to the adverse effects of all the things that chemistry has always known --- the ones that are left and right of each formula --- But that the traditional economy and the practice of the operator have long ignored. Hence the great importance and relevance of educational value accounting chemistry.

A minimum of attention to those chemicals may suggest --- --- across the entire population that uses the kitchen, wash basin, sink or toilet chemical laboratories --- --- true that the entire mass of materials treaties, including the air that "buy" free atmosphere, is found shortly after the air as a gas, the residues of food, soapy solutions, excrement coming out of our daily lives do not disappear but they end up sewers and then into the sewage treatment works and into rivers and the sea. Accounting and ecosystem ecology home, are just as important as the ecology of the factory or the city.

good chemistry is vital to making good laws against pollution and good and sensible actions for the recycling of materials in the waste, to initiate investigations for remediation of areas contaminated by past production activities. And 'in fact this is a field where you weld the interests of geographical and historical, such trials were held in the factories that occupied a territory? --- --- all chemical substances which were treated and processed? such wastes were produced? What happened and how you can take away from their deposits or diminish the harm? Good chemistry is

needed to design products and materials and products in view of their entire life cycle that includes, again, with material and monetary value of materials that end up in receiving bodies of nature, rejected without any monetary expenditure, but with high social and health costs and environmental .

Good chemistry --- and --- adequate and good chemical controls are necessary for the procedures for the award of the eco-label trials which are listed "from-cradle-to-grave", otherwise the procedures that should defend consumers and the environment are transformed into pure advertising operations. And how much chemical would be needed to verify and inform citizens on both declared environmental claims under of many goods entering the market with big advertising attractions.

In this regard, a modern society would have every incentive to strengthen, indeed to resurrect those structures that had chemical labs "hygiene and prophylaxis, that the intent of the legislators were created a hundred years ago, recognizing that the prevention of disease was possible only through chemical analysis of food, of food, water, products used in agriculture, and then, from the fifties onwards, through a chemical control of working conditions, air pollution, disposal of waste. No coincidence that the direction of the first French laboratory of hygiene and prophylaxis was given al chimico Pasteur (1822-1895).

La polverizzazione delle competenze nel settore sanitario e della lotta alle frodi alimentari, nel settore dei controlli ambientali, e di quelli in campo agricolo e delle stesse dogane, da cui tanti chimici sono poi passati sulle cattedre universitarie di merceologia, ha impoverito la capacità di indagine, di controllo e di analisi delle uniche strutture che possono davvero prevenire le malattie. Proprio quando l'unificazione, il coordinamento e il potenziamento della parte chimica avrebbero potuto rappresentare la vera soluzione.

Sorprende (o non dovrebbe sorprendere ?) che il mondo politico, economico e lo stesso mondo imprenditoriale prestino così poca attenzione agli strumenti conoscitivi chimici che sono essenziali per un genuino sviluppo economico.

La conoscenza chimica consente la spiegazione di come sono fatti e come possono essere prodotti le cose, gli oggetti, i materiali presenti in natura e nella vita quotidiana. La chimica è nata con l'obiettivo di spiegare e descrivere fenomeni naturali e, nello stesso tempo, di risolvere problemi pratici: la sbianca e la tintura dei tessuti, la conservazione dei cibi, la concia delle pelli, la fermentazione del pane. La ricerca scientifica chimica è stata originata e ha avuto i suoi massimi successi in relazione a problemi "pratici": dal premio Nobel a Fritz Haber (1868-1914) per la scoperta delle condizioni che consentono la sintesi dell'ammoniaca, al premio Nobel a Giulio Natta (1903-1979) for discoveries that led to synthesize polypropylene.

I still think that the chemist Liebig, in his laboratory in Giessen, together with the experiments of chemical analysis, paying attention to the social problems of the first industrial revolution, how to alleviate the food shortage that affected the masses of proletarians hungry d 'Europe, who worked to increase agricultural yields, which stimulated the use of Chile as a source of nitrous oxide and sulfuric acid for the dissolution of natural phosphates, which explained to the public the importance of meat and that, overcome the difficulties of transporting the meat from the pastures of South America to Europe with the slow sailing ships without refrigeration, "invented" the meat extract and stimulated the construction of the factory in Fray Bentos Uruguay, helping to start the industrialization of the South American country. That which Liebig, reflecting the close relationship between chemistry and economics and trade sectors, in the famous "eleventh letter" he wrote, albeit a bit 'of ingenuity, that the consumption of sulfuric acid is an index of economic development of a country and the consumption of soap is a measure of its civilization.

Although the chemical helps to understand and explain many fundamental aspects of life --- why certain polluting goods, which is the composition of the waste --- one gets the impression that the chemistry of the kitchen and toilet have little space and dignity in teaching chemistry. The merchandise, for example, which are the chemicals involved in these vulgar aspects of chemistry, chemicals are generally considered second-class.

Better chemical culture would also help many other activities and disciplines. Consider, for example, the cultural gap that exists in Italy in the history of chemistry, history of pharmacy, history of product categories, and compare it with the fact that the professional historian, archaeologist or more have to dealing with chemical problems facing evil sometimes superficially, sometimes stammering inaccurate things, with increasing difficulty of meeting with professionals who know chemistry.

probably an intelligent explanation of the aspects of "practical" of chemistry would help the public to recognize in it not only a science closer to everyday life, but rather the first science of life and things that surround us.

There is another lesser known aspect of chemistry. The public, but also to high school students, chemistry is a science-established, full of certainties, if something new appears on the horizon you should look for in fabulous horizons of biotechnology or advanced materials, as they say. A wrong impression: the world around us is still full of mystery chemicals, even in more mundane fields. She mentions, for example, di amido, di lignina e di cellulosa, le pietre fondamentali del mondo vegetale. La cellulosa attrae l'attenzione come ingrediente della carta, l'amido come ingrediente del pane e della pasta e, più recentemente, della finta "plastica" biodegradabile. E invece siamo di fronte ad un campo pieno di misteri. Ogni vegetale contiene amido, lignina, cellulosa, con caratteri differenti da altri; la composizione di queste macromolecole ha carattere statistico per cui si deve parlare al plurale di amidi, cellulose, eccetera.

Con un poco di attenzione e di curiosità si scopre, per esempio, che i diversi cereali hanno amidi di diverse qualità, tanto è vero che con alcuni (il grano) si riesce a fare il pane e con altri (come il mais) no. La stessa caratterizzazione dei cereali e dei relativi sfarinati sulla base dell'amido, delle proteine, dei grassi e delle ceneri è una grossolana approssimazione. Si intuisce, ma se ne sa ben poco, che amido, proteine e grassi sono uniti fra loro in "complessi" grassi-proteine, amido-grassi, amido-proteine; la loro esistenza potrebbe spiegare il fatto che il grano duro ha caratteri diversi dal grano tenero, benché all'analisi chimica grossolana i principali componenti siano in quantità quasi uguali. Fra i misteri chimici del pane c'è il fenomeno del rinvenimento, per cui nel pane raffermo, "vecchio" di due o tre giorni, riscaldato, la mollica ritorna elastica come nel pane appena sfornato, anche se questo carattere scompare dopo poche ore.

Una migliore cultura chimica permetterebbe di chiarire alcuni "grandi" misteri, come il buco dell'ozono stratosferico o l'effetto serra dovuto alle modificazioni chimiche dell'atmosfera, ma permetterebbe anche di capire e di conoscere meglio tantissime altre cose, negli alimenti, nei cosmetici, nelle tinture e nei preparati per ondulare i capelli, nelle precauzioni da prendere quando si deve lavare e stirare, nei meccanismi --- chimici --- con cui funzionano le fotocelle solari o le macchine per trasmissione in facsimile, più note come "fax", o i "cuori" dei computers e dei telefoni cellulari, tutti oggetti che stanno alla base di produzioni e di consumi di massa. Se se ne sapesse di più, forse molti hazards and incidents and errors would be avoided.

Another important aspect of the educational value of the chemical is in the habit to think in three dimensions. All things are in three dimensions, but we are used to draw up a sheet on a plane. The chemical knowledge continuously offers the opportunity to help you imagine, to think and "see" the bodies in space. The water molecule-two academic or HOH, has all its quirks, which are essential for life, just the fact that each molecule binds in the space not only to other water molecules, but to all bodies to which closer and it comes in contact.

The carbon chemistry owes its beauty and its appeal to its three-dimensional character of atoms and molecules, and even if we are forgotten, the discovery of this character was a real cultural revolution. Unfortunately we can not do without, for practical reasons, to write formulas on a plane, but perhaps this same limit is an occasion to remember always that the molecules are always many, all together and spread in all directions.

the late forties of last century, the American chemist Linus Pauling was, as mentioned above, the Nobel Prize for having "thought" that the protein molecules were willing to bow, as was seen experimentally in more detail later. This insight alone enabled him to solve all the mysteries of the behavior of proteins, constitutive stones blocks of life. A decade after Watson and Crickett got the Nobel Prize for discovering the structure of DNA, a chain of molecules of sugar, phosphoric acid and some "basics" (adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine), arranged in " double helix in space. The spatial arrangement of thousands of atoms of each molecule of DNA has allowed to explain the functioning of these molecules essential for "manufacture" of each protein, is always the same specification for each part of each living being. A three-dimensional intuition has in fact solved the fundamental problems of knowledge of life.

I think you could, if desired, really give a joyful image of chemistry and adventurous also an image of beauty, and with it a bolder vision of life, it renders a service to society, economy and ecology --- and the same "chemical" presentable in polite society without shame.

An examination of the paths of cultural goods and the chemistry seems to me that offers an answer to the question: rather than fractious cousins \u200b\u200bthey are really two sisters, even those that are in the house of scientists and administrators of social issues and in the home scientists and administrators of natural things, they explain, albeit with different words, the same things, the way in which nature can, with its physical assets, to meet human needs, which are the only things that matter.



Notes


To see a history of product categories. O. De Marco, "200 years of Products: Past, Present, Future", Chemical Review, 45 (5 / 6), 135-142 (September-December 1993) The history of teaching

merceologia University of Bari is covered by G. Fog, "Commodity", in: A. Vittorio (ed.), "One hundred years of studies in the Faculty of Economics and Commerce of Bari (1886-1986)", Bari, Cacucci Publisher, 1987, p. 145-154

for the citation of the product category in Capital "Marx can be seen: G. Nebbia," The product category and a curious problem philological, "Papers of goods (Bologna), 4 (2), 23-39 (July-December 1965)

The two books of prof. Ciusa Walter (1906-1990) "The production cycles and chemical fundamentals, Bologna, Zuffi, 1948, and" technical and economic aspects of some production processes ", Bologna, Zuffi, 1954, now very rare, include the theoretical basis and culture of the modern twist of the Commodity.

The only foreign book that comes closest to the problems of the fair is: EW Zimmermann (1888-1961), "World Resources and Industries. A functional appraisal of the availability of Agricultural and industrial materials ", Revised edition, New York, Harper & Bros, 1951

The "Review of Commodity", vol. 1, 1962, vol. 39, 2000 (1962 to 1977 appeared under the title "Commodity Papers"), deals with scientific topics of the discipline. Published by the Institutes of the University of commodities, first of Bari, also in Bologna, since 1989 is published by the Commodity of the University of Pescara, from 1996 under the title "Journal of Commodity Science.

The only major dictionary-encyclopedia of the fair is due to Vittorio Villavecchia, "Dictionary of marketable goods", Milan, Heopli, first edition, 1895, in a single volume, second edition, 1908, third edition: Volume I, 1911, Volume II, 1913; quarta edizione in quattro volumi, 1923-1926; quinta e ultima edizione in 4 volumi, 1929-1932. Una edizione successiva, molto meno soddisfacente, è stata curata da Gino Eigenmann e Ivo Ubaldini, "Villavecchia-Eigenmann. Nuovo dizionario di merceologia e chimica applicata", Milano, Editore Heopli, volumi 1-3, 1973; vol. 4, 1974; vol. 5, 1975; vol. 6, 1976; vol. 7, 1977

Qualche notizia sull'evoluzione degli studi merceologici in Italia si può trovare in:
G. Nebbia, "Risorse naturali e merci. Un contributo alla tecnologia sociale", Bari, Cacucci, 1968; G. Nebbia, “Lezioni di Merceologia”, Bari, Laterza, 1996; G. Nebbia, "Risorse merci ambiente", Bari, Progedit, 2001